This paper uses panel analyses to estimate relationships for agricultural planted area and beef cattle numbers at the state level in Mexico during the periods 1970-85, in order to determine the main factors affecting forest land conversion. Of the key policy variables, maize and fertilizer prices appear to be the main influences on the expansion of planted area, whereas beef prices and credit disbursement influence cattle numbers. Population growth also affects both livestock and agricultural activities, and income per capita is positively correlated with cattle expansion. These estimated relationships are used to examine the effects both of agricultural and livestock sectoral policy changes and of trade liberalization in Mexico resulting from the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). To avoid any unintended impacts of NAFTA on Deforestation, it may be necessary for Mexico to make complementary investments in Land improvements, especially for existing cultivation on rain fed land.

Economic analysis of deforestation in Mexico

Farm management handbook.

In the UK, as elsewhere in Europe, bees are valued not only for the honey and wax that they produce, but also for the pollination service that they provide to the majority of our crops and wild flowers. However, no estimate of their value in economic terms has been made in recent years.

The economic value of bees in the UK (Beekeeping in a Nutshell No. 51)

Protected areas (PAs) are a frequently used conservation strategy, yet their socioeconomic impacts on local communities remain contentious. A shift toward increased participation by local communities in PA governance seeks to deliver benefits for human well-being and biodiversity. Although participation is considered critical to the success of PAs, few researchers have investigated individuals' decisions to participate and what this means for how local people experience the costs and benefits of conservation. We explored who participates in PA governance associations and why; the perceived benefits and costs to participation; and how costs and benefits are distributed within and between communities. Methods included 3 focus groups, 37 interviews, and 217 questionnaire surveys conducted in 3 communities and other stakeholders (e.g., employees of a nongovernmental organization and government officials) in PA governance in Madagascar. Our study design was grounded in the theory of planned behavior (TPB), the most commonly applied behavior model in social psychology. Participation in PA governance was limited by miscommunication and lack of knowledge about who could get involved and how. Respondents perceived limited benefits and high costs and uneven distribution of these within and between communities. Men, poorer households, and people in remote villages reported the highest costs. Our findings illustrate challenges related to comanagement of PAs: understanding the heterogeneous nature of communities; ensuring all households are represented in governance participation; understanding differences in the meaning of forest protection; and targeting interventions to reach households most in need to avoid elite capture.

Perceived barriers to and drivers of community participation in protected-area governance.

Forest resources remain vital to the survival of many rural communities, though the level of forest reliance varies across a range of sites and socio-economic settings. This article investigates variation in forest utilization across households in three ethnic groups living near a forest restoration area in Sumatra, Indonesia. Survey data were collected on 268 households, with a four-month recall period and three repeat visits to each selected household within a year. Random sampling was applied to select households in five villages and five Batin Sembilan (indigenous) semi-nomadic groups. Sampled households belonged to three ethnic groups: 15% were Batin Sembilan, 40% Local Malayan, and 45% Immigrant households. Indigenous households displayed the highest reliance on forests: 36% of their annual total income came from this source, as compared with 10% and 8% for Local and Immigrant households, respectively. Our findings showed that the livelihoods of indigenous groups were still intricately linked with forest resources, despite a rapid landscape-wide transition from natural forest to oil palm and timber plantations.

Contribution of Forest Restoration to Rural Livelihoods and Household Income in Indonesia

Forests in Kenya are threatened by unsustainable uses and conversion to alternative land uses. In spite of the consequences of forest degradation and biodiversity loss and reliance of communities on forests livelihoods, there is little empirical data on the role of forest resources in livelihoods of the local communities. Socioeconomic, demographic, and forest use data were obtained by interviewing 367 households. Forest product market survey was undertaken to determine prices of various forest products for valuation of forest use. Forest income was significant to households contributing 33% of total household income. Fuel wood contributed 50%, food (27%), construction material (18%), and fodder, and thatching material 5% to household forest income. Absolute forest income and relative forest income (%) were not significantly different across study locations and between ethnic groups. However, absolute forest income and relative forest income (%) were significantly different among wealth classes. Poor households were more dependent on forests resources. However, in absolute terms, the rich households derived higher forest income. These results provide valuable information on the role of forest resources to livelihoods and could be applied in developing forest conservation policies for enhanced ecosystem services and livelihoods.

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Role of Forest Resources to Local Livelihoods: The Case of East Mau Forest Ecosystem, Kenya

LANGAT D & CHEBOIWO J 2010 To conserve or not to conserve: a case study of forest valuation in Kenya Tindiret natural forest is one of the scattered forests which form the extensive Mau forest complex in Kenya It is an important hydrological system for Lake Victoria To provide strong arguments for more government investment in indigenous forest conservation, quality information and data on forest values need to be available for decision makers There is, however, little information on economic values of most forests in Kenya This study was aimed at estimating the total economic value of Tindiret forest To estimate direct use values by the communities adjacent to the forest, household surveys were conducted with 109 households sampled from three villages within 5 km of the forest Further information was obtained from discussions with key informants The methods employed were market-based valuation techniques, market valuation of physical effects (MVPE) and use of secondary data and benefit transfer approach The study established that the annual direct use value by local forest-adjacent households was approximately Kshs45 mil The non-use values were estimated at Kshs113 mil per year and the opportunity cost of conserving the Tindiret natural forest was estimated at Kshs237 mil Current benefits from Tindiret forest are inadequate to offset the opportunity cost of leaving the forest in its present state The government and the local communities are subsidising the retention of the forest and this subsidy was estimated at Kshs785 mil per year through lost opportunity in agricultural settlement and income

To conserve or not to conserve: a case study of forest valuation in Kenya.

Factors influencing completion of construction projects in public secondary schools in Bomet east sub-county, Bomet county, Kenya

The study reviews the evolution of tree growing in Kenya from pre-colonial through colonial to the present day in order to understand some factors that have influenced such developments. The study is based on desktop literatures reviews of various studies done in the country over the years and the authors’ experiences. The study indicates that forest resources management during pre-colonial period were based on individual communities’traditional structures that ensured that its members had abundant supplies of land and resources to support their socioeconomic activities. Forestlands were viewed as reserves for future agricultural expansion depending on community population growth and settlement patterns. In 1895 the country was declared British Protectorate that heralded the entry of colonial settlers that drastically changed land ownership through displacement and concentration of indigenous populations. Improved health services led to drastic population growths that further shrunk available productive land and forest resources to levels that could not adequately accommodate traditional land uses. The resultant was seriousland degradation in Africa reserves that prompted the Colonial Government to initiate agricultural and land use transformations that included afforestation in highly populated for environmental conservation, boundary marking and supply of tree products. Another parallel development was forest reservation and expansion of public plantation by Forest Department that involved planting of fast growing exotic species such as Eucalyptus, Pines and Cypress among others that diffused to neighbouring farms, missionary centres, schools and emerging elite Africans for amenity and social status. The emergence of Acacia mearnsii as a cash crop for African farmers in Central and western Kenya in 1930s was another development that enhanced adoption of tree growing on farms in the country. After independence in 1963 more policies and strategies to promote tree growing on former settler farms and African reserves for environmental conservation and subsistence needs implemented.  The last chapter of the farm forestry evolution was the commercialization of farm forestry operations due increased demand for various forest products beyond the capacity of public forests. The key markets niches mostly for firewood in tea processing, transmission poles manufacturing, charcoal and sawnwood for rural and urban markets were lucrative enough to motivate millions of smallholder farmers to expand their farm forestry investments. The markets based incentives to meet the growing demand for various products has transformed farm forestry in Kenya into multibillion sector enterprises that competes with public and private plantations products in local markets. The lessons learnt in Kenya case is the multiple factors that have shaped farm forestry development over the last 100 years and the critical role played by market related factors that enabled smallholder tree growers to enter into lucrative short rotation wood product markets. Keywords: Farm forestry evolution, phases, driving factors

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A Review Farm Forestry Evolution for the Last 100 Years in Kenya: A Look at Some Key Phases and Driving Factors

Prunus africana is a species widely found in Africa whose bark has been used for traditional healing for hundreds of years. Its exploitation for exports began in 1960s and demand peaked in 1970s. High demand and uncontrolled exploitations let to its listing under CITES in 1995 that restricted exports. Kenya has been an important exporter of Prunus bark to Europe until imposition of export ban in 2003. Minimal studies have been undertaken on socioeconomics and conservation impacts of the bark export ban. The study objectives were to identify the production areas, levels of conservation, explore export performance and make some recommendations. The study involved literature reviews and field surveys in key production areas. The findings indicate that the species is found in natural forests and farms in the moist montane zones in the country. The bark is traditionally used to treat various ailments. Kenya annually exported on average 250 tonnes of bark until the ban in 2003 that led to a loss of annual export value $14million. The study recommends that with appropriate policy framework there are opportunities for sustainable growing, harvesting, processing of Prunus africana for biodiversity conservation and diversification of the country's exports.

David Langat

Papers

Role of Forest Resources to Local Livelihoods: The Case of East Mau Forest Ecosystem, Kenya

To conserve or not to conserve: a case study of forest valuation in Kenya.

Factors influencing completion of construction projects in public secondary schools in Bomet east sub-county, Bomet county, Kenya

A Review Farm Forestry Evolution for the Last 100 Years in Kenya: A Look at Some Key Phases and Driving Factors

Review of conservation of Prunus africana and international trade opportunities for its bark in Kenya