Machine Learning is the study of methods for programming computers to learn. Computers are applied to a wide range of tasks, and for most of these it is relatively easy for programmers to design and implement the necessary software. However, there are many tasks for which this is difficult or impossible. These can be divided into four general categories. First, there are problems for which there exist no human experts. For example, in modern automated manufacturing facilities, there is a need to predict machine failures before they occur by analyzing sensor readings. Because the machines are new, there are no human experts who can be interviewed by a programmer to provide the knowledge necessary to build a computer system. A machine learning system can study recorded data and subsequent machine failures and learn prediction rules. Second, there are problems where human experts exist, but where they are unable to explain their expertise. This is the case in many perceptual tasks, such as speech recognition, hand-writing recognition, and natural language understanding. Virtually all humans exhibit expert-level abilities on these tasks, but none of them can describe the detailed steps that they follow as they perform them. Fortunately, humans can provide machines with examples of the inputs and correct outputs for these tasks, so machine learning algorithms can learn to map the inputs to the outputs. Third, there are problems where phenomena are changing rapidly. In finance, for example, people would like to predict the future behavior of the stock market, of consumer purchases, or of exchange rates. These behaviors change frequently, so that even if a programmer could construct a good predictive computer program, it would need to be rewritten frequently. A learning program can relieve the programmer of this burden by constantly modifying and tuning a set of learned prediction rules. Fourth, there are applications that need to be customized for each computer user separately. Consider, for example, a program to filter unwanted electronic mail messages. Different users will need different filters. It is unreasonable to expect each user to program his or her own rules, and it is infeasible to provide every user with a software engineer to keep the rules up-to-date. A machine learning system can learn which mail messages the user rejects and maintain the filtering rules automatically. Machine learning addresses many of the same research questions as the fields of statistics, data mining, and psychology, but with differences of emphasis. Statistics focuses on understanding the phenomena that have generated the data, often with the goal of testing different hypotheses about those phenomena. Data mining seeks to find patterns in the data that are understandable by people. Psychological studies of human learning aspire to understand the mechanisms underlying the various learning behaviors exhibited by people (concept learning, skill acquisition, strategy change, etc.).

Machine learning

Deposits of clastic carbonate-dominated (calciclastic) sedimentary slope systems in the rock record have been identified mostly as linearly-consistent carbonate apron deposits, even though most ancient clastic carbonate slope deposits fit the submarine fan systems better. Calciclastic submarine fans are consequently rarely described and are poorly understood. Subsequently, very little is known especially in mud-dominated calciclastic submarine fan systems. Presented in this study are a sedimentological core and petrographic characterisation of samples from eleven boreholes from the Lower Carboniferous of Bowland Basin (Northwest England) that reveals a >250 m thick calciturbidite complex deposited in a calciclastic submarine fan setting. Seven facies are recognised from core and thin section characterisation and are grouped into three carbonate turbidite sequences. They include: 1) Calciturbidites, comprising mostly of highto low-density, wavy-laminated bioclast-rich facies; 2) low-density densite mudstones which are characterised by planar laminated and unlaminated muddominated facies; and 3) Calcidebrites which are muddy or hyper-concentrated debrisflow deposits occurring as poorly-sorted, chaotic, mud-supported floatstones. These

Phd by thesis

物件導向軟體之架構(Object-Oriented Software Construction)探討

Well adapted to the loosely coupled nature of distributed interaction in large-scale applications, the publish/subscribe communication paradigm has recently received increasing attention. With systems based on the publish/subscribe interaction scheme, subscribers register their interest in an event, or a pattern of events, and are subsequently asynchronously notified of events generated by publishers. Many variants of the paradigm have recently been proposed, each variant being specifically adapted to some given application or network model. This paper factors out the common denominator underlying these variants: full decoupling of the communicating entities in time, space, and synchronization. We use these three decoupling dimensions to better identify commonalities and divergences with traditional interaction paradigms. The many variations on the theme of publish/subscribe are classified and synthesized. In particular, their respective benefits and shortcomings are discussed both in terms of interfaces and implementations.

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The many faces of publish/subscribe

Aspect] is a simple and practical aspect-oriented extension to Java With just a few new constructs, AspectJ provides support for modular implementation of a range of crosscutting concerns. In AspectJ's dynamic join point model, join points are well-defined points in the execution of the program; pointcuts are collections of join points; advice are special method-like constructs that can be attached to pointcuts; and aspects are modular units of crosscutting implementation, comprising pointcuts, advice, and ordinary Java member declarations. AspectJ code is compiled into standard Java bytecode. Simple extensions to existing Java development environments make it possible to browse the crosscutting structure of aspects in the same kind of way as one browses the inheritance structure of classes. Several examples show that AspectJ is powerful, and that programs written using it are easy to understand.

An overview of AspectJ

Explicitly stated program invariants can help programmers by identifying program properties that must be preserved when modifying code. In practice, however, these invariants are usually implicit. An alternative to expecting programmers to fully annotate code with invariants is to automatically infer likely invariants from the program itself. This research focuses on dynamic techniques for discovering invariants from execution traces. This article reports three results. First, it describes techniques for dynamically discovering invariants, along with an implementation, named Daikon, that embodies these techniques. Second, it reports on the application of Daikon to two sets of target programs. In programs from Gries's work (1981) on program derivation, the system rediscovered predefined invariants. In a C program lacking explicit invariants, the system discovered invariants that assisted a software evolution task. These experiments demonstrate that, at least for small programs, invariant inference is both accurate and useful. Third, it analyzes scalability issues, such as invariant detection runtime and accuracy, as functions of test suites and program points instrumented.

/pdf/dynamically-discovering-likely-program-invariants-to-support-2hrrlyjk0k.pdf

Dynamically discovering likely program invariants to support program evolution

Dynamically Discovering Likely Program Invariants to Support Program Evolution

It has been broadly assumed that code clones are inherently bad and that eliminating clones by refactoring would solve the problems of code clones. To investigate the validity of this assumption, we developed a formal denition of clone evolution and built a clone genealogy tool that automatically extracts the history of code clones from a source code repository. Using our tool we extracted clone genealogy information for two Java open source projects and analyzed their evolution. Our study contradicts some conventional wisdom about clones. In particular, refactoring may not always improve software with respect to clones for two reasons. First, many code clones exist in the system for only a short time; extensive refactoring of such short-lived clones may not be worthwhile if they are likely diverge from one another very soon. Second, many clones, especially long-lived clones that have changed consistently with other elements in the same group, are not easily refactorable due to programming language limitations. These insights show that refactoring will not help in dealing with some types of clones and open up opportunities for complementary clone maintenance tools that target these other classes of clones.

/pdf/an-empirical-study-of-code-clone-genealogies-4zeba5m7ml.pdf

An empirical study of code clone genealogies

Software architecture describes the structure of a system, enabling more effective design, program understanding, and formal analysis. However, existing approaches decouple implementation code from architecture, allowing inconsistencies, causing confusion, violating architectural properties, and inhibiting software evolution. ArchJava is an extension to Java that seamlessly unifies software architecture with implementation, ensuring that the implementation conforms to architectural constraints. A case study applying ArchJava to a circuit-design application suggests that ArchJava can express architectural structure effectively within an implementation, and that it can aid in program understanding and software evolution.

/pdf/archjava-connecting-software-architecture-to-implementation-1vdx3e2yxy.pdf

ArchJava: connecting software architecture to implementation

Software engineers often use high-level models (for instance, box and arrow sketches) to reason and communicate about an existing software system. One problem with high-level models is that they are almost always inaccurate with respect to the system's source code. We have developed an approach that helps an engineer use a high-level model of the structure of an existing software system as a lens through which to see a model of that system's source code. In particular, an engineer de nes a high-level model and speci es how the model maps to the source. A tool then computes a software re exion model that shows where the engineer's high-level model agrees with and where it di ers from a model of the source. The paper provides a formal characterization of reexion models, discusses practical aspects of the approach, and relates experiences of applying the approach and tools to a number of di erent systems. The illustrative example used in the paper describes the application of re exion models to NetBSD, an implementation of Unix comprised of 250,000 lines of C code. In only a few hours, an engineer computed several re exion models that provided him with a useful, global overview of the structure of the NetBSD virtual memory subsystem. The approach has also been applied to aid in the understanding and experimental reengineering of the Microsoft Excel spreadsheet product. This research was funded in part by the NSF grant CCR-8858804 and a Canadian NSERC post-graduate scholarship. 0 Permission to make digital/hard copies of all or part of this material without fee is granted provided that the copies are not made or distributed for pro t or commercial advantage, the ACM copyright/server notice, the title of the publication and its date appear, and notice is given that copyright is by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. (ACM). To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior speci c permission and/or a fee. SIGSOFT '95 Washington, D.C., USA c 1995 ACM 0-89791-716-2/95/0010...$3.50

David Notkin

Papers

Dynamically discovering likely program invariants to support program evolution

Dynamically Discovering Likely Program Invariants to Support Program Evolution

An empirical study of code clone genealogies

ArchJava: connecting software architecture to implementation

Software Reflexion Models: Bridging the Gap Between Source and High-Level Models