Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques

Cross-cultural perspectives have brought renewed interest in the social aspects of the self and the extent to which individuals define themselves in terms of their relationships to others and to social groups. This article provides a conceptual review of research and theory of the social self, arguing that the personal, relational, and collective levels of self-definition represent distinct forms of selfrepresentation with different origins, sources of self-worth, and social motivations. A set of 3 experiments illustrates haw priming of the interpersonal or collective "we" can alter spontaneous judgments of similarity and self-descriptions. Until recently, social psychological theories of the self focused on the individuated self-concept—the person's sense of unique identity differentiated from others. Cross-cultural perspectives, however, have brought a renewed interest in the social aspects of the self and the extent to which individuals define themselves in terms of their relationships to others and to social groups (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988). Central to this new perspective is the idea that connectedness and belonging are not merely affiliations or alliances between the self and others but entail fundamental differences in the way the self is construed (Brewer, 1991; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Singelis, 1994; Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto, 1991; Triandis, 1989; Turner, Oakes, Haslam, & McGarty, 1994). Some of these theories of the social self focus on cross-cultural differences in whether the self is typically construed as individuated or interpersonal. However, all recognize that these different self-construals may also coexist within the same individual, available to be activated at different times or in different contexts. Furthermore, in several theories, achieving an extended sense of self has the status of a fundamental human motivation (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Brewer, 1991). In other words, individuals seek to define themselves in terms of their immersion in relationships with others and with larger collectives and derive much of their self-evaluation from such social identities (Breckler & Greenwald, 1986; Greenwald & Breckler, 1985). The motivational properties of collective identities are systematically documented in Baumeister and Leary's (1995) comprehensive review of the evidence in support of a fundamental "need to belong" as an innate feature of human nature. All of the theories mentioned above draw some kind of distinction between the individuated or personal self (those aspects of the self-concept that differentiate the self from all others) and a relational or social self (those aspects of the self-concept that

Who is this "We"? Levels of collective identity and self representations.

Consumer-generated product reviews have proliferated online, driven by the notion that consumers' decision to purchase or not purchase a product is based on the positive or negative information about that product they obtain from fellow consumers. Using research on information processing (Chaiken 1980) as a foundation, we suggest that in the context of an online community, reviewer disclosure of identity-descriptive information is used by consumers to supplement or replace product information when making purchase decisions and evaluating the helpfulness of online reviews. Using a unique dataset based on both chronologically compiled ratings as well as reviewer characteristics for a given set of products and geographical location-based purchasing behavior from Amazon, we provide evidence that community norms are an antecedent to reviewer disclosure of identity-descriptive information. Amazon members rate reviews containing identity-descriptive information more positively, and the prevalence of reviewer disclosure of identity information is associated with increases in subsequent online product sales. In addition, we show that when reviewers are from a particular geographic location, subsequent product sales are higher in that region, thus highlighting the important role of geography in electronic commerce. Taken together, our results suggest that identity-relevant information about reviewers shapes community members' judgment of products and reviews. Implications for research on the relationship between online reviews and sales, peer recognition systems, and conformity to online community norms are discussed.

/pdf/examining-the-relationship-between-reviews-and-sales-the-jp34uv1l20.pdf

Examining the Relationship Between Reviews and Sales: The Role of Reviewer Identity Disclosure in Electronic Markets

Consumer-generated product reviews have proliferated online, driven by the notion that consumers' decision to purchase or not purchase a product is based on the positive or negative information about that product they obtain from fellow consumers. Using research on information processing as a foundation, we suggest that in the context of an online community, reviewer disclosure of identity-descriptive information is used by consumers to supplement or replace product information when making purchase decisions and evaluating the helpfulness of online reviews. Using a unique data set based on both chronologically compiled ratings as well as reviewer characteristics for a given set of products and geographical location-based purchasing behavior from Amazon, we provide evidence that community norms are an antecedent to reviewer disclosure of identity-descriptive information. Online community members rate reviews containing identity-descriptive information more positively, and the prevalence of reviewer disclosure of identity information is associated with increases in subsequent online product sales. In addition, we show that shared geographical location increases the relationship between disclosure and product sales, thus highlighting the important role of geography in electronic commerce. Taken together, our results suggest that identity-relevant information about reviewers shapes community members' judgment of products and reviews. Implications for research on the relationship between online word-of-mouth WOM and sales, peer recognition and reputation systems, and conformity to online community norms are discussed.

A reconceptualization of stigma is presented that changes the emphasis from the devaluation of an individual's identity to the process by which individuals who satisfy certain criteria come to be excluded from various kinds of social interactions. The authors propose that phenomena currently placed under the general rubric of stigma involve a set of distinct psychological systems designed by natural selection to solve specific problems associated with sociality. In particular, the authors suggest that human beings possess cognitive adaptations designed to cause them to avoid poor social exchange partners, join cooperative groups (for purposes of between-group competition and exploitation), and avoid contact with those who are differentially likely to carry communicable pathogens. The evolutionary view contributes to the current conceptualization of stigma by providing an account of the ultimate function of stigmatization and helping to explain its consensual nature.

https://courses.washington.edu/pbafhall/514/514%20Readings/evolutionaryoriginsofstigma.pdf

Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: the functions of social exclusion.

Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory

This paper investigates whether social anxiety and loneliness lead to contrasting beliefs and preferences among cell phone users towards texting and talking on their cell phones. Three hypotheses are examined: (1) that social anxiety and loneliness are differentially associated with generalized preferences either for texting or for talking on the cell phone, (2) that these preferences are linked to contrasting beliefs concerning the social functionality of the short message service (SMS), and (3) that these divergent beliefs mediate the effects of social anxiety and loneliness on cell phone users' generalized preferences for texting or talking. Results from an Internet questionnaire (N=158) showed that, whilst lonely participants preferred making voice calls and rated texting as a less intimate method of contact, anxious participants preferred to text, and rated it a superior medium for expressive and intimate contact. These divergent beliefs accounted for 36% and 16% of the variance in preference for texting and voice calls, respectively, and significantly attenuated the influence of loneliness and social anxiety when they were added to the regression equations for these measures. Results are discussed in terms of the hyperpersonal possibilities of mobile communications technologies.

Text or talk? Social anxiety, loneliness, and divergent preferences for cell phone use.

This study compares face-to-face (FTF) focus groups with focus groups conducted via computer-mediated communication (CMC), using a range of outcome, process and subjective measures. Sixteen groups of three undergraduates participated in focus group discussions under FTF and CMC conditions on two different topics. Topics, communication condition and order of discussion were counterbalanced over groups. Among the results, it was found that, after controlling for the greater number of contributions made by participants in FTF discussions, more ideas and answers were generated in CMC than in FTF discussions; 21, 20 and seven participants preferred the CMC, FTF and ‘either’ discussion setting, respectively. The results suggest that CMC may be a viable alternative to FTF focus groups for certain purposes. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

Online Focus Groups: An In-depth Comparison of Computer-mediated and Conventional Focus Group Discussions:

The increasingly widespread use of text -messaging has led to the questioning of the social and psychological effects of this novel communication medium. A selection of findings from an online questionnaire that was developed by the author to answer this pertinent question are presented. McKenna’s recent work on the way the Internet can help some people develop relationships is drawn upon and taken a step further by exploring the differences between those who prefer texting (‘Texters’) and those who prefer talking on their mobiles (‘Talkers’). A large sample of 982 respondents completed the questionnaire. Results showed there was a clear distinction between Texters and Talkers in the way they used their mobiles and their underlying motivations. The key finding to emerge in the preliminary analyses was that Texters seemed to form close knit ‘text circles’ with their own social ecology, interconnecting with a close group of friends in perpetual text contact. Compared to Talkers, Texters were found to be more lonely and socially anxious, and more likely to disclose their ‘real-self’ through text than via face- to face or voice call exchanges. Structural equation modeling produced a model showing that where respondents located their real-self and whether they were a Texter or a Talker mediated between the loneliness and social anxiety measures and the impact of these on relational outcomes, in line with McKenna’s theoretical framework. Thus it appears that there is something special about texting that allows some people to translate their loneliness and/or social anxiety into productive relationships whilst for others the mobile does not afford the same effect. .Applications and explorations for future research are discussed.

/pdf/insights-into-the-social-and-psychological-effects-of-sms-213jhnsikz.pdf

Insights into the Social and Psychological Effects of SMS Text Messaging

This study investigates the popularity of mobile messaging as a social medium. Using data from an Internet questionnaire (N = 635) on the use of the short message service (SMS) for mobile phone text messaging ('texting'), we examine two components of an affordance pathways hypothesis of SMS uptake: (1) mobile phone users must first discover and make use of hidden social affordances of texting in order to obtain significant interpersonal benefit from the medium, and (2) key social and psychological variables differentially predispose users to capitalise on these affordances. We developed and validated latent factor measures of texting affordances and relationship outcomes, examined the differential effects of a range of predictor variables on these measures, and tested a model in which the expressive and conversational use of texting mediates the effects of social anxiety, loneliness, age, and relationship status on relationship outcomes. This model proved a significant fit to the data, and was superior to alternative models which systematically varied the causal priority of SMS affordances and relationship outcomes. The results suggest that young, single, and socially anxious mobile phone users are predisposed to recognise and take advantage of the social functionality of SMS to enrich their personal relationships.

Fraser J. M. Reid

Papers

Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory

Text or talk? Social anxiety, loneliness, and divergent preferences for cell phone use.

Online Focus Groups: An In-depth Comparison of Computer-mediated and Conventional Focus Group Discussions:

Insights into the Social and Psychological Effects of SMS Text Messaging

The expressive and conversational affordances of mobile messaging