자연주의적 탐구조사(Naturalistic Inquiry)

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Using Multivariate Statistics

Tested the 2-process theory of detection, search, and attention presented by the current authors (1977) in a series of experiments. The studies (a) demonstrate the qualitative difference between 2 modes of information processing: automatic detection and controlled search; (b) trace the course of the

http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.127

Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory.

A theory of memory retrieval is developed and is shown to apply over a range of experimental paradigms. Access to memory traces is viewed in terms of a resonance metaphor. The probe item evokes the search set on the basis of probe-memory item relatedness, just as a ringing tuning fork evokes sympathetic vibrations in other tuning forks. Evidence is accumulated in parallel from each probe-memory item comparison, and each comparison is modeled by a continuous random walk process. In item recognition, the decision process is self-terminating on matching comparisons and exhaustive on nonmatching comparisons. The mathematical model produces predictions about accuracy, mean reaction time, error latency, and reaction time distributions that are in good accord with experimental data. The theory is applied to four item recognition paradigms (Sternberg, prememorized list, study-test, and continuous) and to speed-accuracy paradigms; results are found to provide a basis for comparison of these paradigms. It is noted that neural network models can be interfaced to the retrieval theory with little difficulty and that semantic memory models may benefit from such a retrieval scheme.

A Theory of Memory Retrieval.

The authors examine the practice of dichotomization of quantitative measures, wherein relationships among variables are examined after 1 or more variables have been converted to dichotomous variables by splitting the sample at some point on the scale(s) of measurement. A common form of dichotomization is the median split, where the independent variable is split at the median to form high and low groups, which are then compared with respect to their means on the dependent variable. The consequences of dichotomization for measurement and statistical analyses are illustrated and discussed. The use of dichotomization in practice is described, and justifications that are offered for such usage are examined. The authors present the case that dichotomization is rarely defensible and often will yield misleading results. We consider here some simple statistical procedures for studying relationships of one or more independent variables to one dependent variable, where all variables are quantitative in nature and are measured on meaningful numerical scales. Such measures are often referred to as individual-differences measures, meaning that observed values of such measures are interpretable as reflecting individual differences on the attribute of interest. It is of course straightforward to analyze such data using correlational methods. In the case of a single independent variable, one can use simple linear regression and/or obtain a simple correlation coefficient. In the case of multiple independent variables, one can use multiple regression, possibly including interaction terms. Such methods are routinely used in practice. However, another approach to analysis of such data is also rather widely used. Considering the case of one independent variable, many investigators begin by converting that variable into a dichotomous variable by splitting the scale at some point and designating individuals above and below that point as defining

/pdf/on-the-practice-of-dichotomization-of-quantitative-variables-4ptz7egd59.pdf

On the Practice of Dichotomization of Quantitative Variables

Given the morphophonemic nature of the English orthography, surprisingly few studies have examined the roles of morphological and phonological awareness in reading. This 4-year longitudinal study (Grades 2–5) compared these two factors in three aspects of reading development: pseudoword reading, reading comprehension, and single word reading. Morphological awareness contributed significantly to pseudoword reading and reading comprehension, after controlling prior measures of reading ability, verbal and nonverbal intelligence, and phonological awareness. This contribution was comparable to that of phonological awareness and remained 3 years after morphological awareness was assessed. In contrast, morphological awareness rarely contributed significantly to single word reading. We argue that these results provide evidence that morphological awareness has a wide-ranging role in reading development, one that extends beyond phonological awareness.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0142716404001110

Morphological awareness: Just "more phonological"? The roles of morphological and phonological awareness in reading development

This article investigates how well kindergarten phonological awareness (PA) and naming speed (NS) account for reading development to Grade 5. The authors use regression analyses to predict reading development, with mental ability and prior achievement controlled, and follow the reading development of children having combinations of adequate or inadequate PA and NS. PA was most strongly related to reading in the first 2 years of school, and NS's initially weaker relationship increased with grade level. Children with weak PA and slow NS were most likely to develop reading difficulties by Grade 5, followed by children with slow NS alone. The authors discuss the roles of NS and PA in reading development and the need to clarify the constructs underlying NS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

Naming Speed and Phonological Awareness as Predictors of Reading Development.

The authors reviewed all peer-reviewed studies with participants from preschool to Grade 8 for this meta-analysis of morphological interventions. They identified 22 applicable studies. Instructional effects (Cohen’s d) were averaged by linguistic outcome categories (morphological sublexical, nonmorphological sublexical, lexical, and supralexical) and comparison group (experimental group vs. control or experimental group vs. alternative training). The authors investigated the effects of morphological instruction (a) on reading, spelling, vocabulary, and morphological skills, (b) for less able readers versus undifferentiated samples, (c) for younger versus older students, and (d) in combination with instruction of other literacy skills or in isolation. Results indicate that (a) morphological instruction benefits learners, (b) it brings particular benefits for less able readers, (c) it is no less effective for younger students, and (d) it is more effective when combined with other aspects of literacy instruc...

The Effects of Morphological Instruction on Literacy Skills A Systematic Review of the Literature

Current theories of the structure of cognitive abilities are critically examined and found to lack adequate description of the processes underlying the abilities. An alternative model, Luria's theory of simultaneous and successive syntheses, is presented and discussed. This model of information processing is supported by a number of factor analytic studies of cognitive abilities and then related to data from studies of memory, imagery, and language. Finally, a model of abilities in terms of a structure-process distinction is proposed. Ever since intelligence tests were devised, the concept of ability has been advanced as something underlying behavior. Often interchangeable with capacity, intellectual ability has been described as a general factor akin to mental energy (Spearman, 1927), the complexity and flexibility of a person's schemata (Vernon, 1960), a hierachy of reasoning and memory (Burt, 1972; Jensen, 1970), or the ability to meet new situations with old responses. Recently, there seems to be a shift from the postulation and study of abilities to an inquiry into processes (Messick, 1973). One of the apparent advantages of considering processes is their proximity to behavior or performance, describing modes of an individual's functioning in a test situation; it is easier and more meaningful to integrate the interplay between genetic endowments and the historical nature of an individual's experience with the characteristics of the task itself, as determinants of the processes used by an individual, rather than invoke the notion of abilities. Encouragement in viewing cognitive functions in terms of processes also comes from those who oppose faculty psychology. As based on factor analytic work, abilities often emerge as mental faculties, permanent and immutable, and dissociated from behavior. Humphreys (1962a, 1962b), for instance, reacts unfavorably to such a view by listing

John R. Kirby

Papers

Morphological awareness: Just "more phonological"? The roles of morphological and phonological awareness in reading development

Naming Speed and Phonological Awareness as Predictors of Reading Development.

The Effects of Morphological Instruction on Literacy Skills A Systematic Review of the Literature

Simultaneous and successive synthesis: An alternative model for cognitive abilities.

Simultaneous and successive cognitive processes