To study the detailed location patterns of industries, and particularly the tendency for industries to cluster relative to overall manufacturing, we develop distance-based tests of localisation. In contrast to previous studies, our approach allows us to assess the statistical significance of departures from randomness. In addition, we treat space as continuous instead of using an arbitrary collection of geographical units. This avoids problems relating to scale and borders. We apply these tests to an exhaustive UK data set. For four-digit industries, we find that (i) only 51% of them are localised at a 5% confidence level, (ii) localisation takes place mostly at small scales below 50 kilometres, (iii) the degree of localisation is very skewed, and (iv) industries follow broad sectoral patterns with respect to localisation. Depending on the industry, smaller establishments can be the main drivers of both localisation and dispersion. Three-digit sectors show similar patterns of localisation at small scales as well as a tendency to localise at medium scales.

Testing for Localisation Using Micro-Geographic Data

This paper reviews a number of methods for the exploration and modelling of spatial point patterns with particular reference to geographical epidemiology (the geographical incidence of disease). Such methods go well beyond the conventional ‘nearest-neighbour’ and ‘quadrat’ analyses which have little to offer in an epidemiological context because they fail to allow for spatial variation in population density. Correction for this is essential if the aim is to assess the evidence for ‘clustering’ of cases of disease. We examine methods for exploring spatial variation in disease risk, spatial and space-time clustering, and we consider methods for modelling the raised incidence of disease around suspected point sources of pollution. All methods are illustrated by reference to recent case studies including child cancer incidence, Burkitt’s lymphoma, cancer of the larynx and childhood asthma. An Appendix considers a range of possible software environments within which to apply these methods. The links to modern geographical information systems are discussed.

/pdf/spatial-point-pattern-analysis-and-its-application-in-1tfowvlud4.pdf

Spatial point pattern analysis and its application in geographical epidemiology

To study the detailed location patterns of industries, and particularly the tendency for industries to cluster relative to overall manufacturing, we develop distance-based tests of localisation. In contrast to previous studies, our approach allows us to assess the statistical significance of departures from randomness. In addition, we treat space as continuous instead of using an arbitrary collection of geographical units. This avoids problems relating to scale and borders. We apply these tests to an exhaustive UK data set. For four-digit industries, we find that (i) 52% of them are localised at a 5% confidence level, (ii) localisation mostly takes place at small scales below 50 kilometres, (iii) the degree of localisation is very skewed, and (iv) industries follow broad sectoral patterns with respect to localisation. Depending on the industry, smaller establishments can be the main drivers of both localisation and dispersion. Three-digit sectors show similar patterns of localisation at small scales as well as a tendency to localise at medium scales.

/pdf/testing-for-localization-using-micro-geographic-data-j0sf6xsayr.pdf

Testing for localization using micro-geographic data

: A system is described which: (a) replaces existing sets of diverse terrain indices with a group of statistics for point-characteristics; (b) calculates all of these statistics in a single computer run from a single data set; and (c) utilizes available altitude matrix data The procedures are applicable to Altitude matrix data at any grid mesh From altitudes in each 3 x 3 submatrix, a quadratic surface is fitted and solved for its first and second horizontal and vertical derivatives at the central point This yields the slope gradient, slope aspect, profile convexity, and plan convexity at every point in the original matrix, except for the peripheral rows and columns These 'point' descriptors are presented as: (1) line-printer shaded maps; (2) histograms; (3) scatter plots of each pair; (4) matrix of pair-wise correlations, plus circular regressions on aspect, and several multiple regressions, and (5) summary (moment-based) statistics In general, the five basic descriptors have little relation to each other, except that gradient is usually a quadratic function of altitude A comparison is made with other approaches, such as spectral analysis and fractal modelling The long-distance persistence properties of terrain mean that considerable extra variance at long wavelengths is usually incorporated when the study area is extended Hence the auto correlation function varies with the length of series or size of area Variance of derivatives are also affected, but means, skews, and kurtoses are not

Statistical Characterization of Altitude Matrices by Computer. Report 6. An Integrated System of Terrain Analysis and Slope Mapping.

Emergency response after 9/11: the potential of real-time 3D GIS for quick emergency response in micro-spatial environments

Geographic Information Systems mainly tend to be two dimensional, thus limiting the applications. As GIS are being developed, researchers and practioners are finding new ways of making GIS three dimensional, even four dimensional in some instances, increasing their usability. This book focuses on the way in which GIS could be made `multidimensional' based on the modelling limitations of current 2D GIS. It suggests extending GIS to incorporate the third and fourth dimensions, as well as time (spatio-temporal GIS), using a variety of programming techniques and discusses current examples of multidimensional GIS.

/pdf/multidimensional-geographic-information-science-2mmqlyf9g8.pdf

Multidimensional Geographic Information Science

This Editorial lead article for the Journal of Location Based Services surveys this complex and multi-disciplinary field and identifies the key research issues. Although this field has produced early commercial disappointments, the inevitability that pervasive location-aware services on mobile devices will emerge means that much research is needed to inform these developments. The article reviews firstly: the science and technology of positioning, geographic information science, mobile cartography, spatial cognition and interfaces, information science, ubiquitous computing; and secondly the business, content and legal, social and ethics aspects, before synthesising the key issues for this new field.

A critical evaluation of location based services and their potential

This article reviews a selected set of location-based services (LBS) that have been published in the research literature, focussing on mobile guides, transport support, gaming, assistive technology and health. The research needs and opportunities in each area are evaluated and the connections between each category of LBS are discussed. The review illustrates the enormous diversity of forms in which LBS are appearing and the wide range of application sectors that are represented. However, very few of these applications are implemented pervasively on a commercial basis as this is still challenging technically and economically.

Applications of location-based services: a selected review

Postcodes: the new geography

This paper introduces a framework for the evaluation of geographic information (GI), divided into representational and communicative aspects. The representational component is concerned with how ‘real-world’ phenomena situated in space and time come to be represented or modelled in GI, considered at ontological, modelling and system levels. The communicative component of GI is concerned with how representations of GI are understood by the users of the information, considered at relevance, commodification, exploration and management levels. This paper attempts to bring together the previous work in all these areas into an evaluative framework so that creators and users can assess the validity and success of the representational and communicative process overall. This paper also outlines the architecture of a client-server geolibrary designed for information sharing. This kind of architecture provides a distributed and open platform for the development of GI networks, upon which more productive use of GI ca...

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/016555150202800105

Jonathan Raper

Papers

Multidimensional Geographic Information Science

A critical evaluation of location based services and their potential

Applications of location-based services: a selected review

Postcodes: the new geography

A framework for evaluating geographical information