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Modern Applied Statistics With S

Beginning with Emlen (1966) and MacArthur and Pianka (1966) and extending through the last ten years, several authors have sought to predict the foraging behavior of animals by means of mathematical models. These models are very similar,in that they all assume that the fitness of a foraging animal is a function of the efficiency of foraging measured in terms of some "currency" (Schoener, 1971) -usually energy- and that natural selection has resulted in animals that forage so as to maximize this fitness. As a result of these similarities, the models have become known as "optimal foraging models"; and the theory that embodies them, "optimal foraging theory." The situations to which optimal foraging theory has been applied, with the exception of a few recent studies, can be divided into the following four categories: (1) choice by an animal of which food types to eat (i.e., optimal diet); (2) choice of which patch type to feed in (i.e., optimal patch choice); (3) optimal allocation of time to different patches; and (4) optimal patterns and speed of movements. In this review we discuss each of these categories separately, dealing with both the theoretical developments and the data that permit tests of the predictions. The review is selective in the sense that we emphasize studies that either develop testable predictions or that attempt to test predictions in a precise quantitative manner. We also discuss what we see to be some of the future developments in the area of optimal foraging theory and how this theory can be related to other areas of biology. Our general conclusion is that the simple models so far formulated are supported are supported reasonably well by available data and that we are optimistic about the value both now and in the future of optimal foraging theory. We argue, however, that these simple models will requre much modification, espicially to deal with situations that either cannot easily be put into one or another of the above four categories or entail currencies more complicated that just energy.

Citation classic - optimal foraging - a selective review of theory and tests

Investigations of the role of competition, predation and abiotic stress in shaping natural communities were a staple for previous generations of ecologists and are still popular themes. However, more recent experimental research has uncovered the largely unanticipated, yet striking influence of facilitation (i.e. positive species interactions) on the organization of terrestrial and aquatic communities. Modern ecological concepts and theories were well established a decade before the current renaissance of interest in facilitation began, and thus do not consider the importance of a wide variety of facilitative interactions. It is time to bring ecological theory up to date by including facilitation. This process will not be painless because it will fundamentally change many basic predictions and will challenge some of our most cherished paradigms. But, ultimately, revising ecological theory will lead to a more accurate and inclusive understanding of natural communities.

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Inclusion of facilitation into ecological theory

Proponents of optimal foraging theory attempt to predict the behavior of animals while they are foraging; this theory is based on a number of assump­ tions ( 133 , 155 , 2 10, 23 1 ) . First, an individual's contribution to the next generation (i.e. its "fitness") depends on its behavior while foraging. This contribution may be measured genetically or culturally as the proportion of an individual's genes or "ideas", respectively, in the next generation. In the former case, the theory is simply an extension of Darwin's theory of evolution. Second, it is assumed that there should be a heritable component of foraging behavior, i.e. an animal that forages in a particular manner should be likely to have offspring that tend to forage in the same manner. This heritable compo­ nent can be either the actual foraging responses made by an animal or the rules by which an animal learns to make such responses. In other words, optimal foraging theory may apply regardless of whether the foraging behavior is learned or innate. Given these first two assumptions, it follows that the proportion of individuals in a population foraging in ways that enhance their fitness will tend to increase over time. Unless countervailed by sufficiently strong group selection (see 287, 242), foraging behavior will therefore evolve, and the average foraging behavior will increasingly come to be characterized by those characteristics that enhance individual fitness. The third assumption is that the relationship between foraging behavior and fitness is known. This relationship is usually referred to as the currency of fitness (23 1 ) . In general, any such currency will include a time scale, although in some cases it may be assumed that fitness is a function of some rate.

Optimal Foraging Theory: A Critical Review

We present a model of community regulation that incorporates the effects of abiotic disturbance, predation, competition, and recruitment density. We assume that mobile organisms (i.e., consumers) are more strongly affected by environmental stress than are sessile organisms and that food-web complexity decreases with increasing stress. The model makes three predictions under conditions of high recruitment. First, in stressful environments, consumers have no effect because they are absent or inactive, and competition for space is prevented. Both mobile and sessile organisms are regulated directly by environmental stress. Second, in moderate environments, consumers are still ineffective, but sessile organisms are less affected by stress and frequently attain high densities, leading to competition for space. Finally, in benign environments, consumers prevent competition for space unless the prey can escape a predation bottleneck and reach a high abundance. A reduction in recruitment density reduces the import...

Community regulation: variation in disturbance, competition, and predation in relation to environmental stress and recruitment

Population and community ecology of Mytilus

The Ecology of Rocky Coasts

Systematics Evolution and Distribution of Mussels Belonging To the Genus Mytilus - An Overview

Marine mussels are widely distributed and have been used extensively as environmental biomonitors. Communities associated with mussel patches have a high species richness but are typically dominated by a few very abundant species. These communities exhibit significant temporal and small-scale spatial variations in abundance and diversity which should be recognized when considering global patterns of marine biodiversity. Many of the species associated with tropical mussel beds are also represented by taxonomically and functionally equivalent species in mussel communities from temperate waters. The phenomenon of ‘parallel communities’ on rocky shores is thus apparently replicated on a finer spatial scale within mussel patches.

Raymond Seed

Papers

Population and community ecology of Mytilus

The Ecology of Rocky Coasts

Systematics Evolution and Distribution of Mussels Belonging To the Genus Mytilus - An Overview

Patterns of biodiversity in the macro-invertebrate fauna associated with mussel patches on rocky shores

Criteria for prey size-selection in molluscivorous crabs with contrasting claw morphologies