Here we conducted a large-scale genetic association analysis of educational attainment in a sample of approximately 1.1 million individuals and identify 1,271 independent genome-wide-significant SNPs. For the SNPs taken together, we found evidence of heterogeneous effects across environments. The SNPs implicate genes involved in brain-development processes and neuron-to-neuron communication. In a separate analysis of the X chromosome, we identify 10 independent genome-wide-significant SNPs and estimate a SNP heritability of around 0.3% in both men and women, consistent with partial dosage compensation. A joint (multi-phenotype) analysis of educational attainment and three related cognitive phenotypes generates polygenic scores that explain 11-13% of the variance in educational attainment and 7-10% of the variance in cognitive performance. This prediction accuracy substantially increases the utility of polygenic scores as tools in research.

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Gene discovery and polygenic prediction from a genome-wide association study of educational attainment in 1.1 million individuals

Nanotechnology has recently gained increased attention for its capability to effectively diagnose and treat various tumors. Nanocarriers have been used to circumvent the problems associated with conventional antitumor drug delivery systems, including their nonspecificity, severe side effects, burst release and damaging the normal cells. Nanocarriers improve the bioavailability and therapeutic efficiency of antitumor drugs, while providing preferential accumulation at the target site. A number of nanocarriers have been developed; however, only a few of them are clinically approved for the delivery of antitumor drugs for their intended actions at the targeted sites. The present review is divided into three main parts: first part presents introduction of various nanocarriers and their relevance in the delivery of anticancer drugs, second part encompasses targeting mechanisms and surface functionalization on nanocarriers and third part covers the description of selected tumors, including breast, lungs, colorectal and pancreatic tumors, and applications of relative nanocarriers in these tumors. This review increases the understanding of tumor treatment with the promising use of nanotechnology.

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Effective use of nanocarriers as drug delivery systems for the treatment of selected tumors.

Most human cells utilize glucose as the primary substrate, cellular uptake requiring insulin. Insulin signaling is therefore critical for these tissues. However, decrease in insulin sensitivity due to the disruption of various molecular pathways causes insulin resistance (IR). IR underpins many metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome, impairments in insulin signaling disrupting entry of glucose into the adipocytes, and skeletal muscle cells. Although the exact underlying cause of IR has not been fully elucidated, a number of major mechanisms, including oxidative stress, inflammation, insulin receptor mutations, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction have been suggested. In this review, we consider the role these cellular mechanisms play in the development of IR.

Insulin resistance: Review of the underlying molecular mechanisms

Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning affects 50,000 people a year in the United States. The clinical presentation runs a spectrum, ranging from headache and dizziness to coma and death, with a mortality rate ranging from 1 to 3%. A significant number of patients who survive CO poisoning suffer from long-term neurological and affective sequelae. The neurologic deficits do not necessarily correlate with blood CO levels but likely result from the pleiotropic effects of CO on cellular mitochondrial respiration, cellular energy utilization, inflammation, and free radical generation, especially in the brain and heart. Long-term neurocognitive deficits occur in 15–40% of patients, whereas approximately one-third of moderate to severely poisoned patients exhibit cardiac dysfunction, including arrhythmia, left ventricular systolic dysfunction, and myocardial infarction. Imaging studies reveal cerebral white matter hyperintensities, with delayed posthypoxic leukoencephalopathy or diffuse brain atrophy. Management of thes...

/pdf/carbon-monoxide-poisoning-pathogenesis-management-and-future-4ryf4a7ooh.pdf

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning: Pathogenesis, Management, and Future Directions of Therapy

Pain has been considered as a concept of sensation that we feel as a reaction to the stimulus of our surrounding, putting us in harm’s way and acting as a form of defense mechanism that our body has permanently installed into its system. However, pain leads to a huge chunk of finances within the healthcare system with continuous rehabilitation of patients with adverse pain sensations, which might reduce not only their quality of life but also their productivity at work setting back the pace of our economy. It may not look like a huge deal but factor in pain as an issue for majority of us, it becomes an economical burden. Although pain has been researched into and understood by numerous researches, from its definition, mechanism of action to its inhibition in hopes of finding an absolute solution for victims of pain, the pathways of pain sensation, neurotransmitters involved in producing such a sensation are not comprehensively reviewed. Therefore, this review article aims to put in place a thorough understanding of major pain conditions that we experience—nociceptive, inflammatory and physiologically dysfunction, such as neuropathic pain and its modulation and feedback systems. Moreover, the complete mechanism of conduction is compiled within this article, elucidating understandings from various researches and breakthroughs.

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/19/8/2164/pdf/1

General Pathways of Pain Sensation and the Major Neurotransmitters Involved in Pain Regulation

This new edition is divided into 15 units and each unit has its own divided chapters, altogether consisting of 85 chapters. Unit I is an introduction to physiology consisting of 3 chapters: The cell and general physiology. Unit II addresses membrane physiology, nerve, and muscle, consisting of 5 chapters. Unit VIII has 2 chapters addressing to aviation, space, and deep sea diving physiology. It has a section on hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Units IX, X, and XI concern the physiology of the nervous system consisting of 17 chapters which elegantly review different aspects of the human nervous system. All topics discussed are relevant to daily practicing physician/scientist. One example is the important role of thyroid hormone on the growth and development of the brain during fetal, neonatal, and infantile periods, which needs to be emphasized and remembered because of its grave consequences resulting in cretinism.

Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology

The purpose of this article is to explain the anatomy of the pterygopalatine ganglion (PPG), its location in the pterygopalatine fossa (PPF) in the skull, and the relationship it has to the Vidian nerve terminal branches and the fifth cranial nerve. An overview of the neuro-anatomical/clinical correlations, a spectrum of pathologies affecting the seventh cranial nerve and some therapies both medical and surgical are noted. The focus is the pterygopalatine region with discussion of the proximal courses of the seventh and fifth cranial nerves and their pathological processes. The ganglion is used as an example of neuro-anatomical model for explaining cluster headaches (CH). Radiological correlation is included to clarify the location of the PPF and its clinical importance.

Clinical functional anatomy of the pterygopalatine ganglion, cephalgia and related dysautonomias: A review.

By reading, you can know the knowledge and things more, not only about what you get from people to people. Book will be more trusted. As this molecular and cellular physiology of neurons, it will really give you the good idea to be successful. It is not only for you to be success in certain life you can be successful in everything. The success can be started by knowing the basic knowledge and do actions.

Molecular and Cellular Physiology of Neurons

Background: Education by lectures has been standard for 100 years or more. Given the 21st century technology, people can connect with others around the world instantly, electronically. With the pandemic, teaching changed to one-way information transfer with the loss of interpersonal learning experience. SNI® and now SNI Digital™ have been experimenting with different forms of communication to transfer information. Methods: Using an interactive education model, a meeting for neurosurgeons in Baghdad was held for students, residents, and neurosurgeons, the first in Iraq for a number of years because of the disruption from the war there. A national and international faculty participated. Results: This 15th meeting of the series was described by 42 out of 60 participants as “The best conference I have ever attended.” That significant response highlights the importance of such meetings and how they can be at the highest level possible and be a recipe for success. Conclusion: The 15th meeting provides a focused analysis of the underlying characteristics leading to its success so that it can be duplicated.

Seyed Ali Khonsary

Papers

Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology

Clinical functional anatomy of the pterygopalatine ganglion, cephalgia and related dysautonomias: A review.

Molecular and Cellular Physiology of Neurons

“The most inspiring and mind-blowing meetings ever:” Highlights of the 15th SNI Baghdad Neurosurgery Online Meeting, from Participants’ Perspectives

Atlas of Functional Neuroanatomy