ABI
: ankle–brachial index
ACCORD
: Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes
ADVANCE
: Action in Diabetes and Vascular Disease: Preterax and Diamicron Modified Release Controlled Evaluation
AGREE
: Appraisal of Guidelines Research and Evaluation
AHA
: American Heart Association
apoA1
: apolipoprotein A1
apoB
: apolipoprotein B
CABG
: coronary artery bypass graft surgery
CARDS
: Collaborative AtoRvastatin Diabetes Study
CCNAP
: Council on Cardiovascular Nursing and Allied Professions
CHARISMA
: Clopidogrel for High Athero-thrombotic Risk and Ischemic Stabilisation, Management, and Avoidance
CHD
: coronary heart disease
CKD
: chronic kidney disease
COMMIT
: Clopidogrel and Metoprolol in Myocardial Infarction Trial
CRP
: C-reactive protein
CURE
: Clopidogrel in Unstable Angina to Prevent Recurrent Events
CVD
: cardiovascular disease
DALYs
: disability-adjusted life years
DBP
: diastolic blood pressure
DCCT
: Diabetes Control and Complications Trial
ED
: erectile dysfunction
eGFR
: estimated glomerular filtration rate
EHN
: European Heart Network
EPIC
: European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition
EUROASPIRE
: European Action on Secondary and Primary Prevention through Intervention to Reduce Events
GFR
: glomerular filtration rate
GOSPEL
: Global Secondary Prevention Strategies to Limit Event Recurrence After MI
GRADE
: Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation
HbA1c
: glycated haemoglobin
HDL
: high-density lipoprotein
HF-ACTION
: Heart Failure and A Controlled Trial Investigating Outcomes of Exercise TraiNing
HOT
: Hypertension Optimal Treatment Study
HPS
: Heart Protection Study
HR
: hazard ratio
hsCRP
: high-sensitivity C-reactive protein
HYVET
: Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial
ICD
: International Classification of Diseases
IMT
: intima-media thickness
INVEST
: International Verapamil SR/Trandolapril
JTF
: Joint Task Force
LDL
: low-density lipoprotein
Lp(a)
: lipoprotein(a)
LpPLA2
: lipoprotein-associated phospholipase 2
LVH
: left ventricular hypertrophy
MATCH
: Management of Atherothrombosis with Clopidogrel in High-risk Patients with Recent Transient Ischaemic Attack or Ischaemic Stroke
MDRD
: Modification of Diet in Renal Disease
MET
: metabolic equivalent
MONICA
: Multinational MONItoring of trends and determinants in CArdiovascular disease
NICE
: National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence
NRT
: nicotine replacement therapy
NSTEMI
: non-ST elevation myocardial infarction
ONTARGET
: Ongoing Telmisartan Alone and in combination with Ramipril Global Endpoint Trial
OSA
: obstructive sleep apnoea
PAD
: peripheral artery disease
PCI
: percutaneous coronary intervention
PROactive
: Prospective Pioglitazone Clinical Trial in Macrovascular Events
PWV
: pulse wave velocity
QOF
: Quality and Outcomes Framework
RCT
: randomized clinical trial
RR
: relative risk
SBP
: systolic blood pressure
SCORE
: Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation Project
SEARCH
: Study of the Effectiveness of Additional Reductions in Cholesterol and
SHEP
: Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program
STEMI
: ST-elevation myocardial infarction
SU.FOL.OM3
: SUpplementation with FOlate, vitamin B6 and B12 and/or OMega-3 fatty acids
Syst-Eur
: Systolic Hypertension in Europe
TNT
: Treating to New Targets
UKPDS
: United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study
VADT
: Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial
VALUE
: Valsartan Antihypertensive Long-term Use
VITATOPS
: VITAmins TO Prevent Stroke
VLDL
: very low-density lipoprotein
WHO
: World Health Organization

### 1.1 Introduction

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a chronic disorder developing insidiously throughout life and usually progressing to an advanced stage by the time symptoms occur. It remains the major cause of premature death in Europe, even though CVD mortality has …

/pdf/european-guidelines-on-cardiovascular-disease-prevention-in-4z4nw4311i.pdf

European Guidelines on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (Version 2012)

This article consists of three parts. Part 1 discusses the Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ), designed to measure scales assessing psychological demands, decision latitude, social support, physical demands, and job insecurity. Part 2 reports the cross-national validity, for men and women, of the JCQ scales in six broadly representative populations from four advanced industrial societies: the United States, Canada, the Netherlands and Japan. JCQ scale means, standard deviations, reliabilities and correlations are compared. Part 3 reviews comparison of the intercountry and interoccupation differences in the scales, discusses specific scales issues and discusses the implications of the study for interpretation of psychosocial job asessment questionnaires.

The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ): an instrument for internationally comparative assessments of psychosocial job characteristics.

I argue that the impact of context on organizational behavior is not sufficiently recognized or appreciated by researchers. I define context as situational opportunities and constraints that affect the occurrence and meaning of organizational behavior as well as functional relationships between variables, and I propose two levels of analysis for thinking about context–one grounded in journalistic practice and the other in classic social psychology. Several means of contextualizing research are considered.

The Essential Impact of Context on Organizational Behavior

This study examined the role of three personal resources (self-efficacy, organizational-based self-esteem, and optimism) in the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model. The authors hypothesized that personal resources (1) moderate the relationship between job demands and exhaustion, (2) mediate the relationship between job resources and work engagement, and (3) relate to how employees perceive their work environment and well-being. Hypotheses were tested among 714 Dutch employees. Results showed that personal resources did not offset the relationship between job demands and exhaustion. Instead, personal resources mediated the relationship between job resources and engagement/exhaustion and influenced the perception of job resources. The implications of these findings for the JD-R model are discussed.

/pdf/the-role-of-personal-resources-in-the-job-demands-resources-4h3jqlop6y.pdf

The Role of Personal Resources in the Job Demands-Resources Model

The field of health status and quality of life (QoL) measurement – as a formal discipline with a cohesive theoretical framework, accepted methods, and diverse applications – has been evolving for the better part of 30 years. To identify health status and QoL instruments and review them against rigorous criteria as a precursor to creating an instrument library for later dissemination, the Medical Outcomes Trust in 1994 created an independently functioning Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC). In the mid-1990s, the SAC defined a set of attributes and criteria to carry out instrument assessments; 5 years later, it updated and revised these materials to take account of the expanding theories and technologies upon which such instruments were being developed. This paper offers the SAC's current conceptualization of eight key attributes of health status and QoL instruments (i.e., conceptual and measurement model; reliability; validity; responsiveness; interpretability; respondent and administrative burden; alternate forms; and cultural and language adaptations) and the criteria by which instruments would be reviewed on each of those attributes. These are suggested guidelines for the field to consider and debate; as measurement techniques become both more familiar and more sophisticated, we expect that experts will wish to update and refine these criteria accordingly.

Assessing health status and quality-of-life instruments: Attributes and review criteria

So far, the large majority of studies on burnout in the international literature have employed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). In this paper we criticize the MBI on a number of points and present a new tool for the measurement of burnout: the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI). The CBI consists of three scales measuring personal burnout, work-related burnout, and client-related burnout, for use in different domains. On the basis of an ongoing prospective study of burnout in employees in the human service sector, the PUMA study (Project on Burnout, Motivation and Job Satisfaction; N=1914 at baseline), we analysed the validity and reliability of the CBI. All three scales were found to have very high internal reliability, and non-response rates were small. The scales differentiated well between occupational groups in the human service sector, and the expected pattern with regard to correlations with other measures of fatigue and psychological well-being was found. Furthermore, the three scales ...

The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout

Objectives The aim of this article is to present the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ), a questionnaire developed in three different lengths for assessing psychosocial factors at work, stress, and the well-being of employees and some personality factors The purpose of the COPSOQ concept is to improve and facilitate research, as well as practical interventions at the workplaces

Methods The development of the questionnaire was based on a survey of a representative sample of 1858 Danish employees aged 20–59 years The response rate was 62%; 49% were women Altogether 145 questions from some international and Danish questionnaires and 20 self-developed questions were tested with factor analyses, analyses of internal reliability, and analyses of response patterns 

Results The analyses resulted in a long research version of the questionnaire with 141 questions and 30 dimensions, a medium-length version for work environment professionals with 95 questions and 26 dimensions, and a short version for workplaces with 44 questions and 8 dimensions Most of the scales have good reliability, and there seems to be very little overlap between the scales A novel feature of the COPSOQ is the development of five different scales on demands at work 

Conclusions The COPSOQ concept is a valid and reliable tool for workplace surveys, analytic research, interventions, and international comparisons The questionnaire seems to be comprehensive and to include most of the relevant dimensions according to several important theories on psychosocial factors at work The three versions facilitate communication between researchers, work environment professionals, and workplaces

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/40967527.pdf

The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire--a tool for the assessment and improvement of the psychosocial work environment.

Aims: The aim of the present paper is to present the development of the second version of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ II). Methods: The development of COPSOQ II took place in five main steps: (1) We considered practical experience from the use of COPSOQ I, in particular feedback from workplace studies where the questionnaire had been used; (2) All scales concerning workplace factors in COPSOQ I were analyzed for differential item functioning (DIF) with regard to gender, age and occupational status; (3) A test version of COPSOQ II including new scales and items was developed and tested in a representative sample of working Danes between 20 and 59 years of age. In all, 3,517 Danish employees participated in the study. The overall response rate was 60.4%; (4) Based on psychometric analyses, the final questionnaire was developed; and (5) Criteria-related validity of the new scales was tested. Results: The development of COPSOQ II resulted in a questionnaire with 41 scales and 127 items. New scales on values at the workplace were introduced including scales on Trust, Justice and Social inclusiveness. Scales on Variation, Work pace, Recognition, Work-family conflicts and items on offensive behaviour were also added. New scales regarding health symptoms included: Burnout, Stress, Sleeping troubles and Depressive symptoms. In general, the new scales showed good criteria validity. All in all, 57% of the items of COPSOQ I were retained in COPSOQ II. Conclusions: The COPSOQ I concept has been further developed and new validated scales have been included.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1403494809349858

The second version of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire.

Sickness absence and work strain among Danish slaughterhouse workers: An analysis of absence from work regarded as coping behaviour

The demand-control-support model was developed by R. Karasek and his colleagues during the 1980s. The model operates with three main dimensions: job demands, job decision latitude and job social support. According to the model, workers with jobs characterized by high demands, low decision latitude and low social support (so-called iso-strain) have a higher risk of poor psychological well-being and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The model has been tested in relation to CVD in 16 epidemiological studies of which only two have been negative. Moreover, the model has been used in studies with a large number of other endpoints. Recently the model and the methods used in connection with the model have been criticized by several research workers. In this article the studies on iso-strain and CVD are reviewed and a number of methodological problems are discussed. It is recommended that future studies are prospective and use non-representative population samples of well-chosen occupations. Each of the key variables -job stressors, stress and sickness - should be measured in three independent ways in order to increase the methodological and theoretical strength of the research performed.

Tage S. Kristensen

Papers

The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout

The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire--a tool for the assessment and improvement of the psychosocial work environment.

The second version of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire.

Sickness absence and work strain among Danish slaughterhouse workers: An analysis of absence from work regarded as coping behaviour

The demand-control-support model: Methodological challenges for future research.