American Heart Association Council on cardiovascular nursing.

United Network for Organ Sharing.

Monitoring of intracranial pressure (ICP) has been used for decades in the fields of neurosurgery and neurology. There are multiple techniques: invasive as well as noninvasive. This paper aims to provide an overview of the advantages and disadvantages of the most common and well-known methods as well as assess whether noninvasive techniques (transcranial Doppler, tympanic membrane displacement, optic nerve sheath diameter, CT scan/MRI and fundoscopy) can be used as reliable alternatives to the invasive techniques (ventriculostomy and microtransducers). Ventriculostomy is considered the gold standard in terms of accurate measurement of pressure, although microtransducers generally are just as accurate. Both invasive techniques are associated with a minor risk of complications such as hemorrhage and infection. Furthermore, zero drift is a problem with selected microtransducers. The non-invasive techniques are without the invasive methods' risk of complication, but fail to measure ICP accurately enough to be used as routine alternatives to invasive measurement. We conclude that invasive measurement is currently the only option for accurate measurement of ICP.

/pdf/intracranial-pressure-monitoring-invasive-versus-non-104jskb23h.pdf

Intracranial Pressure Monitoring: Invasive versus Non-Invasive Methods-A Review

Tracheostomy is a common procedure performed in critically ill patients requiring prolonged mechanical ventilation for acute respiratory failure and for airway issues. The ideal timing (early vs late) and techniques (percutaneous dilatational, other new percutaneous techniques, open surgical) for tracheostomy have been topics of considerable debate. In this review, we address general issues regarding tracheostomy (epidemiology, indications, and outcomes) and specifically review the literature regarding appropriate timing of tracheostomy tube placement. Based on evidence from 2 recent large randomized trials, it is reasonable to wait at least 10 d to be certain that a patient has an ongoing need for mechanical ventilation before consideration of tracheostomy. Percutaneous tracheostomy with flexible bronchoscopy guidance is recommended, and optimal percutaneous techniques, indications, and contraindications and results in high-risk patients (coagulopathy, thrombocytopenia, obesity) are reviewed. Additional issues related to tracheostomy diagnosis-related groups, charges, and procedural costs are reviewed. New advances regarding tracheostomy include the use of real-time ultrasound guidance for percutaneous tracheostomy in high-risk patients. New tracheostomy tubes (tapered with low-profile cuffs that fit better on the tapered dilators, longer percutaneous tracheostomy tubes) are discussed for optimal use with percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy. Two new percutaneous techniques, a balloon inflation technique (Dolphin) and the PercuTwist procedure, are reviewed. The efficacy of tracheostomy teams and tracheostomy hospital services with standardized protocols for tracheostomy insertion and care has been associated with improved outcomes. Finally, the UK National Tracheostomy Safety Project developed standardized resources for education of both health care providers and patients, including emergency algorithms for tracheostomy incidents, and serves as an excellent educational resource in this important area.

http://rc.rcjournal.com/content/respcare/59/6/895.full.pdf

Tracheostomy: Epidemiology, Indications, Timing, Technique, and Outcomes

Controversies and evolving new mechanisms in subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Background
Optic nerve ultrasonography (ONUS) may help identify raised intracranial pressure (ICP). The optimal optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) cut-off for the identification of intracranial hypertension has not been established, with some clinical studies suggesting a higher cut-off than may be expected on the basis of prior laboratory investigation.

Optic nerve ultrasound for the detection of raised intracranial pressure.

Introduction: Ultrasound (US) performed prior to percutaneous tracheostomy (PT) may be useful in avoiding injury to pretracheal vascular structures and in avoiding high placement of the tube. Bedside real-time US guidance with visualization of needle path is routinely utilized for other procedures such as central venous catheterization, and may enhance the safety and accuracy of PT without causing airway occlusion or hypercarbia. Our objective was to demonstrate that PT performed under real-time US guidance with visualization of needle path during tracheal puncture is feasible, including in patients with features that increase the technical difficulty of PT. Methods: Mechanically ventilated patients with acute brain injury requiring tracheostomy underwent US guided PT. The orotracheal tube was withdrawn using direct laryngoscopy. The trachea was punctured under real-time US guidance (with visualization of the needle path) while using the acoustic shadows of the cricoid and the tracheal rings to identify the level of puncture. After guidewire passage the site and level of entry was verified using the bronchoscope, which was then withdrawn. Following dilatation and tube placement, placement in the airway was confirmed using auscultation and the “lung sliding” sign on US. Bronchoscopy and chest X-ray were then performed to identify any complications. Results: Thirteen patients successfully underwent US guided PT. Three patients were morbidly obese, two were in cervical spine precautions and one had a previous tracheostomy. In all 13 patients bronchoscopy confirmed that guidewire entry was through the anterior wall and between the first and fifth tracheal rings. There was no case of tube misplacement, pneumothorax, posterior wall injury, significant bleeding or other complication during the procedure. Conclusions: Percutaneous tracheostomy performed under real-time ultrasound guidance is feasible and appears accurate and safe, including in patients with morbid obesity and cervical spine precautions. Larger studies are required to further define the safety and relative benefits of this technique.

/pdf/real-time-ultrasound-guided-percutaneous-dilatational-4z8mgzgwe9.pdf

Real-time ultrasound-guided percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy: a feasibility study

Introduction
Optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) measurement with bedside ultrasound has been shown in many studies to accurately detect high intracranial pressure (ICP). The accuracy of point-in-time ONSD measurement in the presence of ongoing fluctuation of ICP between high and normal is not known. Recent laboratory investigation suggests that reversal of optic nerve sheath distension may be impaired following bouts of intracranial hypertension. Our objective was to compare the accuracy of ONSD measurement in the setting of fluctuating versus stable ICP.

/pdf/comparison-of-accuracy-of-optic-nerve-ultrasound-for-the-bf1szlihe2.pdf

Comparison of accuracy of optic nerve ultrasound for the detection of intracranial hypertension in the setting of acutely fluctuating vs stable intracranial pressure: post-hoc analysis of data from a prospective, blinded single center study

Objective: To evaluate the use and tolerability of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIV) in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) early in their disease by comparing active NIV and sham NIV in patients not yet eligible for NIV use as recommended by practice guidelines. Methods: This was a single-center, prospective, double-blind, randomized, placebo (sham)–controlled pilot trial. Patients with ALS were randomized to receive either sham NIV or active NIV and underwent active surveillance approximately every 3 months until they reached a forced vital capacity (FVC) Results: In total, 54 participants were randomized. The mean NIV use was 2.0 hours (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1–3.0) per day in the sham NIV treatment group and 3.3 hours (CI 2.0–4.6) per day in the active NIV group, which did not differ by treatment group ( p = 0.347). The majority of sham NIV participants (88%) and active NIV participants (73%) reported only mild or no problem with NIV use. Difference of change in FVC through the treatment period by group (0.44 per month) favored active NIV ( p = 0.049). Survival and changes in maximal inspiratory or expiratory pressure did not differ between treatment groups. Conclusions: The efficacy of early NIV in ALS should be tested in randomized, placebo-controlled trials. The trial is registered on clinicaltrials.gov (NCT00580593). Classification of evidence: This study provides Class II evidence that for patients with ALS, adherence with NIV and sham NIV are similar.

Teresa L. Jacobs

Papers

Optic nerve ultrasound for the detection of raised intracranial pressure.

Real-time ultrasound-guided percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy: a feasibility study

Comparison of accuracy of optic nerve ultrasound for the detection of intracranial hypertension in the setting of acutely fluctuating vs stable intracranial pressure: post-hoc analysis of data from a prospective, blinded single center study

Trial of early noninvasive ventilation for ALS: A pilot placebo-controlled study.

Efficacy of antibiotic-impregnated external ventricular drains in reducing ventriculostomy-associated infections.