Beckman, Kenneth B., and Bruce N. Ames. The Free Radical Theory of Aging Matures. Physiol. Rev. 78: 547–581, 1998. — The free radical theory of aging, conceived in 1956, has turned 40 and is rapidl...

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The Free Radical Theory of Aging Matures

■ Abstract Apoptosis is a genetically programmed, morphologically distinct form of cell death that can be triggered by a variety of physiological and pathological stimuli. Studies performed over the past 10 years have demonstrated that proteases play critical roles in initiation and execution of this process. The caspases, a family of cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed proteases, are prominent among the death proteases. Caspases are synthesized as relatively inactive zymogens that become activated by scaffold-mediated transactivation or by cleavage via upstream proteases in an intracellular cascade. Regulation of caspase activation and activity occurs at several different levels: ( a) Zymogen gene transcription is regulated; ( b) antiapoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family and other cellular polypeptides block proximity-induced activation of certain procaspases; and ( c) certain cellular inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (cIAPs) can bind to and inhibit active caspases. Once activated, caspases cleave a variety of intracellular polypeptides, including major structural elements of the cytoplasm and nucleus, components of the DNA repair machinery, and a number of protein kinases. Collectively, these scissions disrupt survival pathways and disassemble important architectural components of the cell, contributing to the stereotypic morphological and biochemical changes that characterize apoptotic cell death.

Mammalian caspases: structure ,a ctivation ,s ubstrates, and functions during apoptosis

Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) is a polyphenol derived from the plant Curcuma longa, commonly called turmeric. Extensive research over the last 50 years has indicated this polyphenol can both prevent and treat cancer. The anticancer potential of curcumin stems from its ability to suppress proliferation of a wide variety of tumor cells, down-regulate transcription factors NF- κB, AP-1 and Egr-1; down-regulate the expression of COX2, LOX, NOS, MMP-9, uPA, TNF, chemokines, cell surface adhesion molecules and cyclin D1; down-regulate growth factor receptors (such as EGFR and HER2); and inhibit the activity of c-Jun N-terminal kinase, protein tyrosine kinases and protein serine/threonine kinases. In several systems, curcumin has been described as a potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. Evidence has also been presented to suggest that curcumin can suppress tumor initiation, promotion and metastasis. Pharmacologically, curcumin has been found to be safe. Human clinical trials indicated no dose-limiting toxicity when administered at doses up to 10 g/day. All of these studies suggest that curcumin has enormous potential in the prevention and therapy of cancer. The current review describes in detail the data supporting these studies. Curcumin, derived from turmeric (vernacular name: Haldi), is a rhizome of the plant Curcuma longa. The medicinal use of this plant has been documented in Ayurveda (the Indian

Anticancer potential of curcumin: preclinical and clinical studies.

Curcumin as “Curecumin”: From kitchen to clinic

Radical-mediated damage to proteins may be initiated by electron leakage, metal-ion-dependent reactions and autoxidation of lipids and sugars. The consequent protein oxidation is O2-dependent, and involves several propagating radicals, notably alkoxyl radicals. Its products include several categories of reactive species, and a range of stable products whose chemistry is currently being elucidated. Among the reactive products, protein hydroperoxides can generate further radical fluxes on reaction with transition-metal ions; protein-bound reductants (notably dopa) can reduce transition-metal ions and thereby facilitate their reaction with hydroperoxides; and aldehydes may participate in Schiff-base formation and other reactions. Cells can detoxify some of the reactive species, e.g. by reducing protein hydroperoxides to unreactive hydroxides. Oxidized proteins are often functionally inactive and their unfolding is associated with enhanced susceptibility to proteinases. Thus cells can generally remove oxidized proteins by proteolysis. However, certain oxidized proteins are poorly handled by cells, and together with possible alterations in the rate of production of oxidized proteins, this may contribute to the observed accumulation and damaging actions of oxidized proteins during aging and in pathologies such as diabetes, atherosclerosis and neurodegenerative diseases. Protein oxidation may also sometimes play controlling roles in cellular remodelling and cell growth. Proteins are also key targets in defensive cytolysis and in inflammatory self-damage. The possibility of selective protection against protein oxidation (antioxidation) is raised.

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Biochemistry and pathology of radical-mediated protein oxidation

Stability of curcumin in buffer solutions and characterization of its degradation products

In this study, human and rat cancer cells were used to investigate the expression of p53 and p21/WAF1/CIP1 and their association with apoptosis after exposure to nitric oxide (NO). It was found that NO induced nuclear accumulation of p53 protein in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The level of p53 protein was elevated by about fivefold compared with that of mock-treated cells 48 h after exposure to 300 ppm NO. The induction of p53 by NO was found by pulse-chase analysis to be mainly regulated by post-translational modification. The correlation between p53 status and apoptosis induced by NO in human cancer cells was also investigated in this study. We found that apoptosis was easily induced in cells containing wild-type p53 (COLO 205 and Hep G2) after exposure to NO. The p21/WAF1/CIP1 protein was induced by NO in cells containing wild-type p53 (Hep G2) but not in cells without p53 (Hep 3B) or with mutated p53 (HT-29). Our results indicate that wild-type p53 and p21/WAF1/CIP1 expression was elevated in human cancer cells by exposure to NO and suggest that this may eventually promote apoptosis.

Induction of p53 and p21/WAF1/CIP1 expression by nitric oxide and their association with apoptosis in human cancer cells.

This study examined the growth inhibitory effects of structurally related polymethoxylated flavones in human cancer cells. Here, we report that 5-hydroxy-3,6,7,8,3',4'-hexamethoxyflavone (5-OH-HxMF) induces growth inhibition of human cancer cells and induction of apoptosis in HL-60 cells through modulation of mitochondrial functions regulated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS generation occurs in the early stages of 5-OH-HxMF-induced apoptosis, preceding cytochrome c release, caspase activation, and DNA fragmentation. The changes occurred after single breaks in DNA were detected, suggesting that 5-OH-HxMF induced irreparable DNA damage, which in turn triggered the process of apoptosis. Up-regulation of Bax was found in 5-OH-HxMF-treated HL-60 cells. In addition, a caspase-independent pathway indicated by endonuclease G also contributed to apoptosis caused by 5-OH-HxMF. Antioxidants suppress 5-OH-HxMF-induced apoptosis. 5-OH-HxMF markedly enhanced growth arrest DNA damage-inducible gene 153 (GADD153) protein in a time-dependent manner. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and catalase prevented up-regulation of GADD153 expression caused by 5-OH-HxMF. These findings suggest that 5-OH-HxMF creates an oxidative cellular environment that induces DNA damage and GADD153 gene activation, which in turn helps trigger apoptosis in HL-60 cells. Meanwhile, ROS were proven an important inducer in this apoptotic process. The C-5 hydroxyl on the ring of 5-OH-HxMF was found to be essential for the antiproliferative and apoptosis-inducing activity. Our study identified the novel mechanisms of 5-OH-HxMF-induced apoptosis and indicated that these results have significant applications as potential chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agents.

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5-Hydroxy-3,6,7,8,3′,4′-hexamethoxyflavone induces apoptosis through reactive oxygen species production, growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible gene 153 expression, and caspase activation in human leukemia cells

It has been demonstrated that nitric oxide (NO) can promote apoptosis in human cancer cells. To test the protective effects of antioxidants (N-acetyl-L-cysteine (LNAC)) and free-radical spin traps (5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide and 2,2,6,6,-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy) against NO-induced apoptosis, a human colon cancer cell line (COLO 205) was treated with NO, and its survival rate was evaluated both with and without antioxidant therapy. LNAC arrested the development of progression of apoptosis in COLO 205 cells in a dose-dependent manner, promoted long-term survival, and prevented the internucleosomal DNA cleavage induced by NO. The intracellular level of glutathione (GSH) was found to be elevated in cells after exposure to LNAC. The bax protein levels were elevated by NO treatment, and this effect was blocked by LNAC. On the other hand, the bcl-2 oncoprotein level in the LNAC-pretreated cells was significantly elevated in a time-dependent manner compared to cells that received NO pretreatment. In summary, our results suggest that the protective effect of LNAC may be linked to its inducement of increases in cellular GSH and bcl-2 protein levels and to its suppression of cellular bax protein in treated cells. Mol. Carcinog. 19:101–113, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Ying-Jan Wang

Papers

Stability of curcumin in buffer solutions and characterization of its degradation products

Induction of p53 and p21/WAF1/CIP1 expression by nitric oxide and their association with apoptosis in human cancer cells.

5-Hydroxy-3,6,7,8,3′,4′-hexamethoxyflavone induces apoptosis through reactive oxygen species production, growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible gene 153 expression, and caspase activation in human leukemia cells

Suppression of nitric oxide-induced apoptosis by n-acetyl-l-cysteine through modulation of glutathione, bcl-2, and bax protein levels

Oxidative modification of DNA bases in rat liver and lung during chemical carcinogenesis and aging