Chinese education is controversial: it is not only lauded for Chinese students’ high test achievements but also criticized for curbing students’ deep learning and development into well-rounded individuals. In the current paper, we propose that self-determination theory (SDT) serves as a useful framework for anatomizing Chinese educational ecology, especially understanding the fundamental developmental costs behind Chinese students’ high test scores. In the first part, we provide an up-to-date overview of SDT, which proposes that a growth-oriented motivation fueled by basic psychological needs underlies human development; hence, the role of education is to provide environmental support for these needs. After reviewing research evidence, we conclude that SDT serves as a valid theoretical framework for analyzing Chinese education. In the second part, we apply the lens of SDT to better understand the motivational dynamics that prevail in Chinese education. In doing so, we first primarily focus on the distal institutional level, thereby examining in detail how the high-stakes testing system headed by Gaokao fails to support—and may even thwart—basic psychological needs; we also address counterarguments favoring Gaokao, such as heightened involvement and alignment. We then scrutinize the pros and cons at the proximal level of the student environment—i.e., teachers and parents. Finally, we discuss existing reform attempts, which seemingly have very limited effectiveness. We propose that awareness of the problem and more holistic change are needed to realize more effective and sustainable change in Chinese education.

Chinese Education Examined via the Lens of Self-Determination

AIMS: Chinese university students are at high risk for depressive symptoms and the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic may have exacerbated the mental health of university students. However, existing studies on depressive symptoms in Chinese university students during the COVID-19 pandemic reported a wide range of prevalence estimates, making mental health planning for this population difficult. The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of surveys that assessed the prevalence of depressive symptoms in Chinese university students amid the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Major Chinese (CNKI, Wanfang, VIP) and English (PubMed, Embase, PsycInfo) databases and preprint platforms were searched to identify cross-sectional studies containing data on the prevalence of depressive symptoms in Chinese university students during the pandemic. Two authors independently retrieved the literature, evaluated the eligibility of potential studies, assessed the risk of bias (RoB) of included studies, and extracted data. RoB was assessed with the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for Studies Reporting Prevalence Data. RESULTS: In total, 1177 records were retrieved, and 84 studies involving 1 292 811 Chinese university students during the pandemic were included. None of the included studies were rated as completely low RoB. Statistically significant heterogeneity in the prevalence estimates of included studies was detected (I2 = 99.9%, p < 0.001). The pooled prevalence of depressive symptoms was 26.0% (95%CI: 23.3-28.9%), which was significantly higher in female than in male students (30.8% v. 28.6%, p < 0.001), in postgraduates than in undergraduates (29.3% v. 22.9%, p < 0.001), in students living inside than in those living outside the COVID-19 epicentre (27.5% v. 22.3%, P < 0.001), in students from universities at the epicentre than in those from universities outside the epicentre (26.2% v. 23.1%, p < 0.001), in students who had close contact with COVID-19 than in those who did not (46.0% v. 25.0%, p < 0.001), and in students who had acquaintances or relatives infected with COVID-19 (39.7% v. 24.0%, p < 0.001) than in those who did not. Five sources of heterogeneity were identified from the subgroup analysis: survey period, % of males among the survey sample, scale of depressive symptoms, cutoff score of the scale and level of RoB. CONCLUSIONS: Over one-fourth of Chinese university students experienced depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Mental health services for this population should include periodic evaluation of depressive symptoms, expanded social support and psychiatric assessment and treatment when necessary. It is also necessary to design depression prevention programmes that target higher-risk cohorts of university students.

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Prevalence of depressive symptoms among Chinese university students amid the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

This study documents the design and use of vocational English materials informed by Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) as social semiotic theory. Extensive studies in language materials development have been undertaken particularly in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) programs in the higher education context (see Harwood, 2014) but only a few in the secondary vocational education sector (see Hua & Beverton, 2013). The study extends the scholarship of ESP materials development in the context of schooling, integrating context analysis, materials creation, and materials enactment (see Singapore Wala, 2013). Grounded in a participatory action research design, this study, conducted over a 13-month period, provides a detailed account of the design and use of the materials in one Indonesian vocational school. School administrators, English teachers, vocational teachers, and 142 students volunteered to participate in the study. Data for the study included field notes, non-participant and participant observations, curriculum documentation, focus group and individual interviews, reflective journals/diaries, and photovoice. The data were qualitatively analyzed using critical thematic and SFL based analyses. The context analysis revealed that while the current language policy provided teachers with full autonomy to design their own materials, the teachers consistently based their instruction on published textbooks, which contained decontextualized exercises geared towards school and national examinations. This situation did not provide students with opportunities to engage with vocational texts. With the support of the school, the teachers and the researcher in consultation with the students created and used text-based materials based on students‘ vocational specializations. The analysis of the actual use of the materials by the teachers and the students revealed that they had opportunities to explore different vocational texts, to analyze how language works in these texts, and to use the language as a tool for communication, knowledge building, and social participation. From a teacher perspective, the teachers viewed the materials development process as professional learning and a way to understand SFL theory and apply it to pedagogical practices, such as content based instruction and text based instruction. This study offers evidence of how social semiotic theory can contribute to ESP materials development and instruction.

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The development of vocational English materials from a social semiotic perspective: participatory action research

Integrating thinking skills in foreign language learning: What can we learn from teachers’ perspectives?

Given Chinese students often perform well academically despite the challenges of their competitive academic environments, it is important to explore what enables the academic resilience of these students. Moreover, because the extant resilience literature is biased towards Western accounts of resilience, it is crucial that non-Western perspectives be added to this literature. In this study, three factors from family and school settings were examined: namely, parental supervision, school involvement and recognition, and school expectation of behaviour. We did so among 693 11th grade Chinese students from two of the largest provinces participating in the competitive college entrance examination in China. Participants completed a questionnaire comprising a series of individual, family, and school variables that were complemented by academic achievement data drawn from school records. Results showed that Chinese parents’ supervision and school involvement and recognition are significantly and negative...

The ‘secrets’ of Chinese students’ academic success: academic resilience among students from highly competitive academic environments

This essay describes the various problems China faces on account of its exam-centric education system and pedagogy. Along with interviews and focus groups, this study draws on survey responses from 43 Chinese high school students enrolled in the Yunnan Province's No. 10 school. Moreover, this essay explores the policy arguments and key assumptions underlying this pedagogical approach as well as the negative influences exam-oriented education systems have on Chinese students, who view education as nothing more than merely passing examinations. This particular approach, at its worst, can stifle a student's imagination, creativity, and sense of self, qualities crucial for a child's ultimate success in and out of the classroom. The study suggests moderate pressure to excel in school, when paired with deemphasizing high-stakes testing, better motivates students and improves student success and psychological health, both in terms of academic success and also a productive adulthood.

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Yuebing Zang

Papers

The Negative Influences of Exam-Oriented Education on Chinese High School Students: Backwash from Classroom to Child