This item was submitted to Loughborough’s Institutional Repository
(https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/) by the author and is made available under the
following Creative Commons Licence conditions.
For the full text of this licence, please go to:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/
Vol. , No. , 200x 1
Copyright © 200x Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
Rapid Manufacturing – Impact on Supply Chain Methodologies and Practice
Abstract
This paper demonstrates the use of Rapid Manufacturing (RM) as the enabling technology for
flexible manufacturing in a number of industrial sectors. The paper discusses the evolution of
Rapid Prototyping (RP) to Rapid Manufacturing and the current issues that require further
research for the successful integration of this technology within manufacturing companies. The
use of RM will have particular impact on supply chain management paradigms such as lean
and agile and has particular strategic fit with mass customisation. The effect RM will have on
these paradigms is discussed and confirmed with example cases from automotive production,
motor sport and medical devices industries. In conclusion RM has already been shown in the
three cases to offer benefits, particularly where fast re-configuration of the manufacturing
process is required and with the production of customised components.
1 Introduction
Rapid Manufacturing (RM) is evolving from Rapid Prototyping (RP) technologies that have
been successfully used to physically visualise designs and concepts. Rapid Manufacturing is
concerned with the direct manufacture of parts and components using additive manufacturing
techniques (Hague et al., 2003, Hopkinson and Dickens, 2001 and Rooks, 2002). The
techniques have some important advantages that are linked to the technology’s modus
operandi. The concept of additive manufacture requires that components be constructed from
data files derived from three dimensional (3D) Computer Aided Design (CAD) software and are
manufactured by adding material together. This is in contrast to more traditional subtractive
manufacture where material is removed through processes such as machining (Griffiths, 2002).
Advantages of additive manufacture lie in the ability to produce highly complex parts that
require no tooling and thus reduce the costs of manufacture, especially for low volumes
AUTHOR NAMES
(Hopkinson and Dickens 2001, Griffiths 2002). As high volumes do not need to be
manufactured to offset the cost of tooling then the possibilities for affordable, highly complex,
custom parts becomes apparent. In theory, each part that is produced could be a custom part.
With all new and novel technological developments, some questions have yet to be answered
and these questions form the principle drivers for the uptake of RM as a manufacturing
process. Some of the questions are based on implications on design methods and practices
(Hague et al. 2003), process and materials improvement (Hague et al., 2004), and business
implications of RM (Halliday and Hague 2002). It is with the latter subject that this paper is
concerned.
This paper has been written as part of a United Kingdom Department of Trade and Industry
(DTI) Foresight Vehicle funded research project entitled “Management, Organisation and
Implementation of Rapid Manufacturing” (ManRM). The ManRM project aims to provide a
foundation of knowledge with respect to the application of RM in current and future
manufacturing environments.
It must be stated that current RM is being done on RP systems such as laser sintering (LS) or
stereolithography (SL). However, though the machines have improved considerably over the
past ten years, these systems require further development for full scale manufacturing, such
as:
1. The machines have been designed for prototyping and are therefore relatively slow,
inaccurate and give poor surface finish.
2. The cost of materials and machines is prohibitive.
3. Materials selection is limited to a few polymeric, metallic and ceramic materials.
TITLE
4. The materials available have little information available with regard to their true engineering
characteristics.
As the parts are produced additively, stair stepping can be noticeable, though changing build
orientation can reduce this. These aspects, coupled with specific build envelopes that limit the
size of the components, mean that current RP systems are not yet optimised for RM.
However, a number of companies are undoubtedly performing RM with current RP methods
today. The production of individually tailored orthodontics has proven a successful business
model for Invisalign (Invisalign, 2005). Customised orthodontics are designed and then moulds
built using stereolithography from which “invisible” teeth aligners are then produced. The
manufacturing of custom designed hearing aids has been developed by Phonak Hearing
Systems and Siemens Hearing Solutions (Hopkinson et al. 2005). This has resulted in the use
of RP equipment and materials to produce fully customised in-the-ear devices. Along with
other cases, these examples serve to demonstrate that RM has a bright future in the
manufacturing of products and services.
Of particular consideration is the effect that RM could have on supply chain management
thinking. The work presented here will outline some of the key changes that are likely and their
impact on current supply chain methodologies. This is backed up with three examples of
current RM applications, including, automotive component and medical devices manufacture.
2 Literature Review – Supply Chains
It is important to define what the supply chain is and why it is so important to all businesses.
The network of suppliers that are involved in providing products or services can be defined as
members of the “supply chain”. This may include raw materials suppliers, sub-assembly,
AUTHOR NAMES
information systems, logistics, retailers and finally the customer. Supply chain management as
defined by Slack et al. (1998) is concerned with the holistic management of the supply chain as
a whole. Cox (1999a) outlined the research agenda necessary to develop supply chains in
terms of a strategic and business importance. A key objective for businesses developing and
researching their supply chain management practices is to:
“appropriate value for themselves from their participation in the supply chain.”
What is clear from Cox’s paper is that not all supply chain methods and practices are suitable
for every company. Indeed, companies that might benchmark themselves to successful
innovators of supply chain thinking can often do more harm than good in their own enterprise.
The differentiation in supply chain practice should be developed from analysing the firm’s
business practices and the properties of demand for its products. In the development of
suitable supply chain practices for the appropriation of value, a number of supply chain
concepts have been developed. These include:
• Lean
• Agile
• Leagility and Postponement
• Mass Customisation
• Demand chain
These concepts have been used as a basis for arguments that will become applicable on the
successful realisation of RM and are discussed in more detail below.
2.1 The Lean Paradigm
The lean paradigm of supply chain management encompasses the idea of reducing waste
throughout the supply chain. In further work by Cox (Cox 1999b) a summary of the eight lean
supply chain characteristics was given. These include:
