Focus group discussion is frequently used as a qualitative approach to gain an in-depth understanding of social issues. The method aims to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a statistically representative sample of a broader population. Even though the application of this method in conservation research has been extensive, there are no critical assessment of the application of the technique. In addition, there are no readily available guidelines for conservation researchers. Here, we reviewed the applications of focus group discussion within biodiversity and conservation research between 1996 and April 2017. We begin with a brief explanation of the technique for first-time users. We then discuss in detail the empirical applications of this technique in conservation based on a structured literature review (using Scopus). The screening process resulted in 170 articles, the majority of which (67, nÂ =Â 114,) were published between 2011 and 2017. Rarely was the method used as a stand-alone technique. The number of participants per focus group (where reported) ranged from 3 to 21 participants with a median of 10 participants. There were seven (median) focus group meetings per study. Focus group discussion sessions lasted for 90 (median) minutes. Four main themes emerged from the review: understanding of people's perspectives regarding conservation (32), followed by the assessment of conservation and livelihoods practices (21), examination of challenges and impacts of resource management interventions (19) and documenting the value of indigenous knowledge systems (16). Most of the studies were in Africa (n=76), followed by Asia (n=44), and Europe (n=30). We noted serious gaps in the reporting of the methodological details in the reviewed papers. More than half of the studies (n=101) did not report the sample size and group size (n=93), whereas 54 studies did not mention the number of focus group discussion sessions while reporting results. Rarely have the studies provided any information on the rationale for choosing the technique. We have provided guidelines to improve the standard of reporting and future application of the technique for conservation. © 2018 The Authors. Methods in Ecology and Evolution © 2018 British Ecological Society

https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/2041-210X.12860

The use of focus group discussion methodology: Insights from two decades of application in conservation

Green infrastructure (GI) and ecosystem services (ES) are promoted as concepts that have potential to improve environmental planning in urban areas based on a more holistic understanding of the complex interrelations and dynamics of social-ecological systems. However, the scientific discourses around both concepts still lack application-oriented frameworks that consider such a holistic perspective and are suitable to mainstream GI and ES in planning practice. This literature review explores how multifunctionality as one important principle of GI planning can be operationalized by approaches developed and tested in ES research. Specifically, approaches developed in ES research can help to assess the integrity of GI networks, balance ES supply and demand, and consider trade-offs. A conceptual framework for the assessment of multifunctionality from a social-ecological perspective is proposed that can inform the design of planning processes and support stronger exchange between GI and ES research.

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From Multifunctionality to Multiple Ecosystem Services? A Conceptual Framework for Multifunctionality in Green Infrastructure Planning for Urban Areas

Protected areas play a major role in reducing climate changing carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere. Fifteen percent of the worlds terrestrial carbon stock - 312 gigatonnes - are stored in protected areas around the world. Protected areas also serve as natural buffers against climate impacts and other disasters, providing space for floodwaters to disperse, stabilizing soil against landslides and blocking storm surges. And protected areas can keep natural resources healthy and productive so they can withstand the impacts of climate change and continue to provide the food, clean water, shelter and income communities rely upon for survival.

Natural solutions : protected areas helping people cope with climate change (Korean version)

To foster strong connections between knowledge and policy action, science–policy interfaces, and the information they produce and exchange, need to be credible, relevant and legitimate. Though this is widely accepted, there has been less emphasis on the problem of trade-offs between these attributes, and how the trade-offs manifest themselves in practice. Based on empirical material on biodiversity-related science–policy interfaces, we identify four major potential trade-offs: first, personal time trade-off: interfacing versus doing other activities; secondly, a clarity–complexity trade-off: simple messages versus communicating uncertainty; thirdly, a speed–quality trade-off: timely outputs versus in-depth quality assessment; and finally, push–pull trade-off: supply-driven versus demand-driven research. Trade-offs are dynamic, vary through policy cycles, and evolve with changing contexts or internal dynamics between actors at the science–policy interface. We outline ways of easing the tensions inherent in trade-offs, but stress that appropriate solutions must be determined on a case-by-case basis.

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Balancing credibility, relevance and legitimacy: A critical assessment of trade-offs in science-policy interfaces

The role of biodiversity in supporting ecosystem services in Natura 2000 sites

The EU’s Habitats and Birds Directives form the basis of efforts to conserve Europe’s biodiversity, with the implementation of a network of protected areas – Natura 2000 – lying at their heart. Implementation of Natura 2000 involves substantial capital investment and requires resources for on-going management and monitoring activities. The network can also deliver a variety of socio-economic benefits, resulting from a range of provisioning, regulating and cultural services, each of which supports human well being. While there is still a lack of quantitative and monetary data for the socio-economic benefits associated with Natura 2000, there is evidence that the benefits to society are larger than the costs of managing and investing in the network. This paper reviews evidence of the costs and benefits of Natura 2000 and makes the proposals regarding future work that would improve understanding of these at a local, regional, national and EU level.

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The costs and socio-economic benefits associated with the Natura 2000 network

One of the core challenges of biodiversity conservation is to better understand the interconnectedness and interactions of scales in ecological and governance processes. These interrelationships constitute not only a complex analytical challenge but they also open up a channel for deliberative discussions and knowledge exchange between and among various societal actors which may themselves be operating at various scales, such as policy makers, land use planners, members of NGOs, and researchers. In this paper, we discuss and integrate the perspectives of various disciplines academics and stakeholders who participated in a workshop on scales of European biodiversity governance organised in Brussels in the autumn of 2010. The 23 participants represented various governmental agencies and NGOs from the European, national, and sub-national levels. The data from the focus group discussions of the workshop were analysed using qualitative content analysis. The core scale-related challenges of biodiversity policy identified by the participants were cross-level and cross-sector limitations as well as ecological, social and social-ecological complexities that potentially lead to a variety of scale-related mismatches. As ways to address these cha- llenges the participants highlighted innovations, and an aim to develop new interdisciplinary approaches to support the processes aiming to solve current scale challenges.

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Biodiversity conservation across scales: lessons from a science–policy dialogue

The Social Dimension of Biodiversity Policy

Scenarios and models for exploring future trends of biodiversity and ecosystem services changes. Final report to the European Commission, DG Environment on Contract

Andrew McConville

Papers

The costs and socio-economic benefits associated with the Natura 2000 network

Biodiversity conservation across scales: lessons from a science–policy dialogue

The Social Dimension of Biodiversity Policy

Scenarios and models for exploring future trends of biodiversity and ecosystem services changes. Final report to the European Commission, DG Environment on Contract