Affective Computing has emerged as an important field of study that aims to develop systems that can automatically recognize emotions. Up to the present, elicitation has been carried out with non-immersive stimuli. This study, on the other hand, aims to develop an emotion recognition system for affective states evoked through Immersive Virtual Environments. Four alternative virtual rooms were designed to elicit four possible arousal-valence combinations, as described in each quadrant of the Circumplex Model of Affects. An experiment involving the recording of the electroencephalography (EEG) and electrocardiography (ECG) of sixty participants was carried out. A set of features was extracted from these signals using various state-of-the-art metrics that quantify brain and cardiovascular linear and nonlinear dynamics, which were input into a Support Vector Machine classifier to predict the subject’s arousal and valence perception. The model’s accuracy was 75.00% along the arousal dimension and 71.21% along the valence dimension. Our findings validate the use of Immersive Virtual Environments to elicit and automatically recognize different emotional states from neural and cardiac dynamics; this development could have novel applications in fields as diverse as Architecture, Health, Education and Videogames.

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Affective computing in virtual reality: emotion recognition from brain and heartbeat dynamics using wearable sensors.

Nature exposure in virtual reality (VR) can provide emotional well-being benefits for people who cannot access the outdoors. Little is known about how these simulated experiences compare with real outdoor experiences. We conduct an experiment with healthy undergraduate students that tests the effects of 6 min of outdoor nature exposure with 6 min of exposure to a 360-degree VR nature video, which is recorded at the outdoor nature exposure location. Skin conductivity, restorativeness, and mood before and after exposure are measured. We find that both types of nature exposure increase physiological arousal, benefit positive mood levels, and are restorative compared to an indoor setting without nature; however, for outdoor exposure, positive mood levels increase and for virtual nature, they stay the same. The nature-based experience shows benefits above and beyond the variance explained by participants' preferences, nature and VR experiences, and demographic characteristics. Settings where people have limited access to nature might consider using VR nature experiences to promote mental health.

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Can Simulated Nature Support Mental Health? Comparing Short, Single-Doses of 360-Degree Nature Videos in Virtual Reality With the Outdoors.

What is the best way of delivering virtual nature for improving mood? An experimental comparison of high definition TV, 360° video, and computer generated virtual reality

Emotions play a critical role in our daily lives, so the understanding and recognition of emotional responses is crucial for human research. Affective computing research has mostly used non-immersive two-dimensional (2D) images or videos to elicit emotional states. However, immersive virtual reality, which allows researchers to simulate environments in controlled laboratory conditions with high levels of sense of presence and interactivity, is becoming more popular in emotion research. Moreover, its synergy with implicit measurements and machine-learning techniques has the potential to impact transversely in many research areas, opening new opportunities for the scientific community. This paper presents a systematic review of the emotion recognition research undertaken with physiological and behavioural measures using head-mounted displays as elicitation devices. The results highlight the evolution of the field, give a clear perspective using aggregated analysis, reveal the current open issues and provide guidelines for future research.

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/18/5163/pdf

Emotion Recognition in Immersive Virtual Reality: From Statistics to Affective Computing.

Contact with nature has been proposed as a solution to achieve physiological relaxation and stress recovery, and a number of scientific verification outcomes have been shown. Compared with studies of the other senses, studies investigating the visual effects of nature have been at the forefront of this research field. A variety of physiological indicators adopted for use in indoor experiments have shown the benefits of viewing nature. In this systematic review, we examined current peer-reviewed articles regarding the physiological effects of visual stimulation from elements or representations of nature in an indoor setting. The articles were analyzed for their stimulation method, physiological measures applied, groups of participants, and outcomes. Thirty-seven articles presenting evidence of the physiological effects of viewing nature were selected. The majority of the studies that used display stimuli, such as photos, 3D images, virtual reality, and videos of natural landscapes, confirmed that viewing natural scenery led to more relaxed body responses than viewing the control. Studies that used real nature stimuli reported that visual contact with flowers, green plants, and wooden materials had positive effects on cerebral and autonomic nervous activities compared with the control. Accumulation of scientific evidence of the physiological relaxation associated with viewing elements of nature would be useful for preventive medicine, specifically nature therapy.

https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/23/4739/pdf

Physiological Benefits of Viewing Nature: A Systematic Review of Indoor Experiments.

INTRODUCTION Virtual reality (VR) can provide exposure to nature for those living in isolated confined environments We evaluated VR-presented natural settings for reducing stress and improving mood METHODS There were 18 participants (9 men, 9 women), ages 32 ± 12 yr, who viewed three 15-min 360° scenes (an indoor control, rural Ireland, and remote beaches) Subjects were mentally stressed with arithmetic before scenes Electrodermal activity (EDA) and heart rate variability measured psycho-physiological arousal The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and the 15-question Modified Reality Judgment and Presence Questionnaire (MRJPQ) measured mood and scene quality RESULTS Reductions in EDA from baseline were greater at the end of the natural scenes compared to the control scene (-059, -052, and 032 μS, respectively) The natural scenes reduced negative affect from baseline ( 12 and 11 points), but the control scene did not ( 04 points) MRJPQ scores for the control scene were lower than both natural scenes (49, 67, and 65 points, respectively) Within the two natural scenes, the preferred scene reduced negative affect ( 24 points) more than the second choice scene ( 18 points) and scored higher on the MRJPQ (68 vs 64 points) DISCUSSION Natural scene VR provided relaxation both objectively and subjectively, and scene preference had a significant effect on mood and perception of scene quality VR may enable relaxation for people living in isolated confined environments, particularly when matched to personal preferencesAnderson AP, Mayer MD, Fellows AM, Cowan DR, Hegel MT, Buckey JC Relaxation with immersive natural scenes presented using virtual reality Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2017; 88(6):520526

Relaxation with Immersive Natural Scenes Presented Using Virtual Reality.

INTRODUCTION: Isolated and confined environments (ICEs), such as spaceflight, are challenging psychologically. We have been evaluating self-directed tools to sustain and improve psychological well-being in these settings. The Expedition Application for Peak Psychological Performance (Expedition-APPP) is an interactive media-based set of self-directed tools that address conflict resolution, stress management, and depression treatment. Virtual reality (VR) of nature scenes is a tool to improve attention and relieve stress by providing users with an immersive nature experience. We evaluated both Expedition-APPP and VR in an ICE.METHODS: The Expedition-APP was evaluated during three, and nature VR during two, deployments at the HI-SEAS habitat, where crews of six were isolated for 812 mo. Participants used both the Expedition-APPP and VR and shared their feedback and experiences after the deployments in semistructured interviews. These interviews were evaluated using qualitative analysis techniques to gather generalizable insights into implementing autonomous mental health programs for people living and working in ICEs.RESULTS: Expedition-APPP modules provided a shared culture, language, and tools for working through challenges. VR allowed for access to emotions and experiences that were unavailable in the habitat. Suggestions for improvement included making refresher training easily available and providing a wider range of content to address different individuals coping styles.DISCUSSION: Both the Expedition-APPP and VR were appreciated and used, although a wider range of content and experiences was desired by participants.Lyons KD, Slaughenhaupt RM, Mupparaju SH, Lim JS, Anderson AA, Stankovic AS, Cowan DR, Fellows AM, Binsted KA, Buckey JC. Autonomous psychological support for isolation and confinement. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2020; 91(11):876885.

Autonomous Psychological Support for Isolation and Confinement.

Introduction We evaluated the reproducibility of two portable, self-administered autorefractors (Netra and SVOne Pro) to assess the time course of visual changes on the ISS. Methods We measured cycloplegic refractive error at 5 visits at least a week apart in 13 subjects (6 women, 7 men, 30 ± 9 yr) using both devices seated and also prone with lower body positive pressure (LBPP) applied. Axial length was measured with an optical biometer. Subjects completed a questionnaire on device preferences. Results The SVOne seated intrasession reproducibility coefficient (RPC) was 0.37 diopters (D), while the Netra's was 0.41 D. Intersession seated results were: RPC = 0.67 D for the SVOne and RPC = 0.54 D for the Netra. The average seated to prone LBPP differences were significantly different from zero for both the SVOne and Netra. The SVOne was preferred in four out of five categories on the questionnaire and took half the time to complete a measurement set compared to the Netra. Discussion Users preferred the SVOne and it took less time. An SVOne refraction change of 0.67 D from baseline would happen by chance less than 5% of the time. If multiple separate measurements were taken, the detection limit could be reduced (e.g., three repeated measurements could reduce it to 0.38 D). Since astronauts with visual changes show spherical equivalent changes of 0.5 to 1.0 D, in-flight autorefractors could help determine the time course of refractive changes in space from which changes in axial length could be inferred.Masterova KS, Anderson AP, Cowan DR, Fellows AM, Zegans ME, Buckey JC. Portable autorefractors for detecting axial length changes in space. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2018; 89(8):724-730.

Portable Autorefractors for Detecting Axial Length Changes in Space.

Background: Internet-based programs can help provide accessible and inexpensive behavioral health care to those in need; however, the evaluation of these interventions has been mostly limited to controlled trials. Data regarding patterns of use and effectiveness of self-referred, open-access online interventions are lacking. We evaluated an online-based treatment designed to address stress, depression, and conflict management, the Dartmouth PATH Program, in a freely available and self-guided format during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Objective: The primary aim is to determine users’ levels of stress and depression, and the nature of problems and triggers they reported during the COVID-19 pandemic. A secondary objective is to assess the acceptability and usability of the PATH content and determine whether such a program would be useful as a stand-alone open-access resource. The final objective is understanding the high dropout rates associated with online behavioral programs by contrasting the use pattern and program efficacy of individuals who completed session one and did not return to the program with those who came back to complete more sessions.
Methods: Cumulative anonymous data from 562 individuals were analyzed. Stress triggers, stress responses, and reported problems were analyzed using qualitative analysis techniques. Scores on usability and acceptability questionnaires were evaluated using the sign test and Wilcoxon signed rank test. Mixed-effects linear modeling was used to evaluate changes in stress and depression over time.
Results: A total of 2484 users registered from April through October 2020, most of whom created an account without initiating a module. A total of 562 individuals started the program and were considered in the data analysis. The most common stress triggers individuals reported involved either conflicts with family or spouses and work or workload. The most common problems addressed in the mood module were worry, anxiousness, or stress and difficulty concentrating or procrastination. The attrition rate was high with 13% (21/156) completing the conflict module, 17% (50/289) completing session one of the mood module, and 14% (16/117) completing session one of the stress module. Usability and acceptability scores for the mood and stress modules were significantly better than average. In those who returned to complete sessions, symptoms of stress showed a significant improvement over time (P=.03), and there was a significant decrease in depressive symptoms over all time points (P=.01). Depression severity decreased on average by 20% (SD 35.2%; P=.60) between sessions one and two.
Conclusions: Conflicts with others, worry, and difficulty concentrating were some of the most common problems people used the programs to address. Individuals who completed the modules indicated improvements in self-reported stress and depression symptoms. Users also found the modules to be effective and rated the program highly for usability and acceptability. Nevertheless, the attrition rate was very high, as has been found with other freely available online-based interventions.
Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02726061; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02726061

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Use of a Self-guided Computerized Cognitive Behavioral Tool During COVID-19: Evaluation Study.

Background Hyperbaric oxygen (HBO2)-oxygen at pressures higher than atmospheric-is approved for 14 indications by the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society HBO2's main effect is to increase oxygen content in plasma and body tissues, which can counteract hypoxia or ischemia Laboratory studies show that HBO2 has effects beyond relieving hypoxia (eg, promoting angiogenesis in irradiated tissue, anti-inflammatory effects, radiosensitization of tumors, hypoxia preconditioning, and fungal growth inhibition) and has potential to treat conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease and pyoderma gangrenosum Lack of consistently collected outcome data on a large cohort of individuals receiving HBO2 therapy limits its use for both established and new indications A course of therapy often involves 30-40 visits to a hyperbaric chamber, so the number of patients seen at any given center is constrained by chamber capacity As a result, published HBO2 outcome data tend to be from small case series because few patients with a particular condition are treated at a given center To solve this problem, a registry that collects and pools data systematically from multiple institutions has been established Objective The aim of this study is to collect consistent outcome data across multiple hyperbaric centers to assess treatment effectiveness and establish a research consortium Methods A consortium of hyperbaric centers who have agreed to collect consistent outcome data on all patients seen has been assembled Data are collected at each participating center using Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap), a web-based, data collection system used frequently for research Standard outcome measures have been defined for each condition, which are programmed into the REDCap data collection templates Governance is through a consortium agreement that defines data security, data sharing, publications, liability, and other issues Centers obtain Institutional Review Board (IRB) and ethics approval to participate, either from their own institutions or by relying on the IRB at the coordinating center at Dartmouth College Dissemination will occur through a yearly report and by publications based on the data in the registry Results Early results from some common indications show significant pretreatment to posttreatment changes Additional indications and outcome measures are being added using the procedures outlined in the consortium agreement Conclusions The registry collects consistent outcome information for a therapy that needs further study and a stronger evidence base It also overcomes the challenge of collecting data from an adequate number of patients for both established and emerging indications by combining data collection from multiple centers The data entry requirements should be within the capabilities of existing staff at any given hyperbaric center By using REDCap, the registry can be expanded to include detailed information on particular indications and long-term follow-up on selected patients without significantly increasing the basic data entry requirements Through the registry, a network of enrolled hyperbaric centers has been established that provides the basis for a clinical trial network International registered report identifier (irrid) DERR1-102196/18857

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Development of an International, Multicenter, Hyperbaric Oxygen Treatment Registry and Research Consortium: Protocol for Outcome Data Collection and Analysis

Devin R Cowan

Papers

Relaxation with Immersive Natural Scenes Presented Using Virtual Reality.

Autonomous Psychological Support for Isolation and Confinement.

Portable Autorefractors for Detecting Axial Length Changes in Space.

Use of a Self-guided Computerized Cognitive Behavioral Tool During COVID-19: Evaluation Study.

Development of an International, Multicenter, Hyperbaric Oxygen Treatment Registry and Research Consortium: Protocol for Outcome Data Collection and Analysis