Urbanization, resource exploitation, and lifestyle changes have diminished possibilities for human contact with nature in many societies. Concern about the loss has helped motivate research on the health benefits of contact with nature. Reviewing that research here, we focus on nature as represented by aspects of the physical environment relevant to planning, design, and policy measures that serve broad segments of urbanized societies. We discuss difficulties in defining “nature” and reasons for the current expansion of the research field, and we assess available reviews. We then consider research on pathways between nature and health involving air quality, physical activity, social cohesion, and stress reduction. Finally, we discuss methodological issues and priorities for future research. The extant research does describe an array of benefits of contact with nature, and evidence regarding some benefits is strong; however, some findings indicate caution is needed in applying beliefs about those benefits,...

Nature and Health

This paper reviews trends in cycling levels, safety, and policies in Canada and the USA over the past two decades. We analyze aggregate data for the two countries as well as city-specific case study data for nine large cities (Chicago, Minneapolis, Montreal, New York, Portland, San Francisco, Toronto, Vancouver, and Washington). Cycling levels have increased in both the USA and Canada, while cyclist fatalities have fallen. There is much spatial variation and socioeconomic inequality in cycling rates. The bike share of work commuters is more than twice as high in Canada as in the USA, and is higher in the western parts of both countries. Cycling is concentrated in central cities, especially near universities and in gentrified neighborhoods near the city center. Almost all the growth in cycling in the USA has been among men between 25-64 years old, while cycling rates have remained steady among women and fallen sharply for children. Cycling rates have risen much faster in the nine case study cities than in their countries as a whole, at least doubling in all the cities since 1990. They have implemented a wide range of infrastructure and programs to promote cycling and increase cycling safety: expanded and improved bike lanes and paths, traffic calming, parking, bike-transit integration, bike sharing, training programs, and promotional events. We describe the specific accomplishments of the nine case study cities, focusing on each city's innovations and lessons for other cities trying to increase cycling. Portland's comprehensive package of cycling policies has succeeded in raising cycling levels 6-fold and provides an example that other North American cities can follow.

Bicycling renaissance in North America? An update and re-appraisal of cycling trends and policies

https://nacto.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/2016_Fishman_Bikeshare-A-Review-of-Recent-Literature.pdf

Bikeshare: A Review of Recent Literature

Bike Share: A Synthesis of the Literature

This article analyzes the variation in bike commuting in large American cities, with a focus on assessing the influence of bike paths and lanes, which have been the main approach to increasing cycling in the USA. To examine the role of cycling facilities, we used a newly assembled dataset on the length of bike lanes and paths in 2008 collected directly from 90 of the 100 largest U.S. cities. Pearson’s correlation, bivariate quartile analysis, and two different types of regressions were used to measure the relationship between cycling levels and bikeways, as well as other explanatory and control variables. Ordinary Least Squares and Binary Logit Proportions regressions confirm that cities with a greater supply of bike paths and lanes have significantly higher bike commute rates—even when controlling for land use, climate, socioeconomic factors, gasoline prices, public transport supply, and cycling safety. Standard tests indicate that the models are a good fit, with R2 ranging between 0.60 and 0.65. Computed coefficients have the expected signs for all variables in the various regression models, but not all are statistically significant. Estimated elasticities indicate that both off-street paths and on-street lanes have a similar positive association with bike commute rates in U.S. cities. Our results are consistent with previous research on the importance of separate cycling facilities and provide additional information about the potentially different role of paths vs. lanes. Our analysis also revealed that cities with safer cycling, lower auto ownership, more students, less sprawl, and higher gasoline prices had more cycling to work. By comparison, annual precipitation, the number of cold and hot days, and public transport supply were not statistically significant predictors of bike commuting in large cities.

/pdf/cycling-to-work-in-90-large-american-cities-new-evidence-on-34qxjeeq9m.pdf

Cycling to work in 90 large American cities: new evidence on the role of bike paths and lanes

Commuting by Bicycle: An Overview of the Literature

This paper analyses the influence of commuters' attitudes toward the benefits of travel by bicycle (e.g. convenience, low cost, health benefits) on the mode choice decision for commutes to work. We assume that when the commute journey intensifies, either in terms of distance or frequency, attitudes toward cycling become more positive. Factor analysis reveals three underlying attitudinal factors toward cycling to work: awareness, direct trip-based benefits and safety. The decision to cycle is influenced by the factor "direct trip-based benefit" at all distances, whereas the "awareness" is influential only over long distances. The decision to cycle every day is again affected by the "direct benefit" factor. The factors "safety" and "awareness" are important over shorter distances. Having a cycling habit increases the likelihood of cycling and a higher frequency of cycling. The perceived opinion of others only affects the mode choice over short distances suggesting indicates mode choice on longer commutes is based on one's own attitudes. These findings indicate that attitudes and other psychological factors have a relatively strong impact on the choice to commute by bicycle.

The role of attitudes toward characteristics of bicycle commuting on the choice to cycle to work over various distances

Similarities in Attitudes and Norms and the Effect on Bicycle Commuting: Evidence from the Bicycle Cities Davis and Delft

This paper, using longitudinal data for 633 part-time bicycle commuters, investigates day-to-day decisions to commute by bicycle. Previous research has investigated mode choice, travel destination, and other travel choices for 1 day only. However, it cannot be assumed that travel choices do not vary from day to day and that most individuals travel by the same transportation mode every day. Day-to-day decisions to cycle are affected by work characteristics, commute journey characteristics, and weather conditions. More specifically, workers wearing business attire, needing to transport goods, needing a car during office hours, having longer commute distances, commuting in the dark, and facing a higher wind speed or a more or longer duration of rain are less likely to commute by bicycle. Positive effects were found for temperature and the duration of sunshine. The results show that factors that can differ on a daily basis largely influence bicycle mode choice from day to day. The results show that two groups...

Day-to-Day Choice to Commute or Not by Bicycle:

Mode alternation in the Netherlands was compared, and data from a longitudinal survey were compared with a single-moment survey that focused on bicycle commuting to evaluate its reliability. Travel data are usually collected at a single moment in time. The use of single-moment survey data to investigate variable behavior raises questions about the reliability of such data. Repeated measures, resulting in longitudinal data, may be the solution because in that case individuals would have to report only 1 day at a time, a relatively easy task. Collection of longitudinal data, however, is more expensive and takes more time. Analyses showed that mode alternation occurred frequently, especially for car and bicycle commuters. Single-moment surveys appeared to be unable to measure this accurately. Many respondents inaccurately reported being part-time cyclists although they always cycled to work or, conversely, claimed to be full-time cyclists although they varied modes. Moreover, many did not accurately report cycling frequency in a single-moment survey. However, it is difficult to determine the characteristics that predict the probability of an accurate report. In addition, the degree of accuracy is not readily linked to individual characteristics. Thus, it appears that the error in single-moment surveys cannot be easily corrected. Even repetitive behavior is subject to much variation, so surveys should include specific questions that would increase insight into this phenomenon and transport models should include mode variation. For this innovation in transport models to occur, longitudinal data must be collected and analyzed.

Ethan Heinen

Papers

Commuting by Bicycle: An Overview of the Literature

The role of attitudes toward characteristics of bicycle commuting on the choice to cycle to work over various distances

Similarities in Attitudes and Norms and the Effect on Bicycle Commuting: Evidence from the Bicycle Cities Davis and Delft

Day-to-Day Choice to Commute or Not by Bicycle:

Are longitudinal data unavoidable? Measuring variation in bicycle mode choice