General Aspects.- Systematics.- Biology of Mosquitoes.- Medical Importance of Mosquitoes.- Mosquito Research Techniques.- Morphology of Mosquitoes.- Identification Keys Morphology Ecology and Distribution of European Species.- Key to Female Mosquitoes.- Key to Male Mosquitoes.- Key to Mosquito Fourth Instar Larvae.- Subfamily Anophelinae.- Subfamily Culicinae.- Identification Keys, Morphology, Ecology and Distribution of Important Vector and Nuisance Species - Worldwide.- Africa.- Asia.- Australia.- Central and South America.- North America.- Control of Mosquitoes.- Biological Control.- Environmental Management of Mosquitoes.- Chemical Control.- Physical Control.- Genetic Control of Mosquitoes.- Personal Protection.- Implementation and Integration of Mosquito Control Measures.

Mosquitoes and their Control

Agrochemical research over the last two decades has resulted in the discovery of chemically novel insecticides that mimic the action of the two insect growth and developmental hormones, the steroidal 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) and the sesquiterpenoid juvenile hormone (JH). Bisacylhydrazines are non-steroidal agonists of 20E and exhibit their insecticidal activity via interaction with the ecdysteroid receptor proteins. Interestingly, two of the bisacylhydrazine (tebufenozide and RH-2485) insecticides are very selectively toxic to lepidopteran pests. These insecticides are safe to beneficial insects and have a benign ecotoxicological profile. Aromatic non-terpenoidal insecticides (fenoxycarb and pyriproxyfen) mimic the action of JHs. However, like the JHs, their exact mode of action is not well understood. These insecticides are toxic to a broad spectrum of insects during their embryonic, last larval, or reproductive stages. The insecticidal, ecotoxicological properties and the mode of action of the two groups of insecticides are reviewed in this article.

New insecticides with ecdysteroidal and juvenile hormone activity.

Golgi studies of the neurons in the optic lobes of Drosophila melanogaster reveal a large number of neuronal cell types. These can be classified as either columnar or tangential. Columnar elements establish the retinotopic maps of the lamina, medulla, and lobula-complex neuropiles. They are classified according to the position of their cell bodies, the number, width, and level of their arborizations, and their projection areas. Tangential elements are oriented perpendicularly to the columns. The arborizations of different tangential neurons are restricted to different layers of the optic neuropiles, within such layers their dendritic fields may span the entire retinotopic field or only part of it. The abundance of cell types inside each of the columnar units of the optic lobe is discussed with regard to its possible functional significance. By means of their stratified arborizations the columnar neurons form what appear to be multiple sets of retinotopically organized parallel information processing networks. It is suggested that these parallel networks filter different kinds of visual information and thus represent structurally separated functional subunits of the optic lobe. Such a parallel organization of visual functions increases the sites for function-specific gene actions and may explain the behavioral phenotypes of recently isolated structural mutants of the optic lobe.

The optic lobe of Drosophila melanogaster . I. A Golgi analysis of wild-type structure

The mechanisms that cause aging are not well understood. The oxidative stress hypothesis proposes that the changes associated with aging are a consequence of random oxidative damage to biomolecules. We hypothesized that oxidation of specific proteins is critical in controlling the rate of the aging process. Utilizing an immunochemical probe for oxidatively modified proteins, we show that mitochondrial aconitase, an enzyme in the citric acid cycle, is a specific target during aging of the housefly. The oxidative damage detected immunochemically was paralleled by a loss of catalytic activity of aconitase, an enzyme activity that is critical in energy metabolism. Experimental manipulations which decrease aconitase activity should therefore cause a decrease in life-span. This expected decrease was observed when flies were exposed to hyperoxia, which oxidizes aconitase, and when they were given fluoroacetate, an inhibitor of aconitase. The identification of a specific target of oxidative damage during aging allows for the assessment of the physiological age of a specific individual and provides a method for the evaluation of treatments designed to affect the aging process.

https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/94/21/11168.full.pdf

Oxidative damage during aging targets mitochondrial aconitase

Insect metamorphosis is a fascinating and highly successful biological adaptation, but there is much uncertainty as to how it evolved Ancestral insect species did not undergo metamorphosis and there are still some existing species that lack metamorphosis or undergo only partial metamorphosis Based on endocrine studies and morphological comparisons of the development of insect species with and without metamorphosis, a novel hypothesis for the evolution of metamorphosis is proposed Changes in the endocrinology of development are central to this hypothesis The three stages of the ancestral insect species-pronymph, nymph and adult-are proposed to be equivalent to the larva, pupa and adult stages of insects with complete metamorphosis This proposal has general implications for insect developmental biology

P. N. R. Usherwood

Papers

Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology