自然界和人类社会中存在着大量的中间状态，人类的语言也是如此。大多数人在出生后首先习得和掌握的是他的母语（mother tongue），在以后的人生中，会有机会学习第二语言（secongd language）或目的语（target language）。所谓中介语是指第二语言学习者建构起来的介于母语和目的语之间的过渡性语言，它处于不断的发展变化过程中，并逐渐向目的语靠近。

中介语（interlanguage）初探

Rules and Representations

In this article, the motivation for Universal Grammar (UG), as assumed in the principles and parameters framework of generative grammar (Chomsky, 1981a, 1981b), is discussed, particular attention being paid to the logical problem of first language acquisition. The potential role of UG in second language (L2) acquisition is then considered. Three different positions are reviewed: (a) the claim that UG is not available to L2 learners; (b) the claim that UG is fully available; and (c) the claim that the L2 learner's access to UG is mediated by the mother tongue. This raises the issue of what kind of evidence can be used to decide between these three positions. Recent experimental research which argues for one or another of these positions by investigating the L2 status of the Subjacency Principle is reviewed, and the implications of this research are discussed.

/pdf/second-language-acquisition-and-universal-grammar-37ve6piazx.pdf

Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar

The ability to process the linguistic input in real time is crucial for successfully acquiring a language, and yet little is known about how language learners comprehend or produce language in real time. Against this background, we have conducted a detailed study of grammatical processing in language learners using experimental psycholinguistic techniques and comparing different populations (mature native speakers, child first language [L1] and adult second language [L2] learners) as well as different domains of language (morphology and syntax). This article presents an overview of the results from this project and of other previous studies, with the aim of explaining how grammatical processing in language learners differs from that of mature native speakers. For child L1 processing, we will argue for a continuity hypothesis claiming that the child's parsing mechanism is basically the same as that of mature speakers and does not change over time. Instead, empirical differences between child and mature speaker's processing can be explained by other factors such as the child's limited working memory capacity and by less efficient lexical retrieval. In nonnative (adult L2) language processing, some striking differences to native speakers were observed in the domain of sentence processing. Adult learners are guided by lexical–semantic cues during parsing in the same way as native speakers, but less so by syntactic information. We suggest that the observed L1/L2 differences can be explained by assuming that the syntactic representations adult L2 learners compute during comprehension are shallower and less detailed than those of native speakers.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/28EB9167780446B105527FA06D996119/S0142716406060024a.pdf/div-class-title-grammatical-processing-in-language-learners-div.pdf

Grammatical Processing in Language Learners.

In this article, two accounts of the variable use of inflection in adult second language (L2) acquisition are examined. The Missing Surface Inflection Hypothesis (MSIH) proposes that L2 learners have unconscious knowledge of the functional projections and features underlying tense and agreement. However, learners sometimes have a problem with realization of surface morphology, such that they resort to non-finite forms (e.g. Haznedar and Schwartz, 1997; Prevost and White, 1999). The Impaired Representation Hypothesis (IRH) claims that L2 inflection is essentially impaired, due to lack of functional categories, features or feature strength (e.g. Eubank, 1993/94; Meisel, 1997). These views make different predictions for adult L2 acquisition. Spontaneous production data from two adult learners of French and two adult learners of German are examined. The data show that finite forms do not occur in non-finite contexts, that learners exhibit syntactic reflexes of finiteness and that inflected forms largely show ...

Missing Surface Inflection or Impairment in second language acquisition? Evidence from tense and agreement

To what extent, if any, does Universal Grammar (UG) constrain second language (L2) acquisition? This is not only an empirical question, but one which is currently investigable. In this context, L2 acquisition is emerging as an important new domain of psycholinguistic research. Three logical possibilities have been articulated regarding the role of UG in L2 acquisition: The first is the “no access” hypothesis that claims that no aspect of UG is available to the L2 learner. The second is the “partial access” hypothesis that claims that only LI instantiated principles and LI instantiated parameter-values of UG are available to the learner. The third, called the “full access” hypothesis, asserts that UG in its entirety constrains L2 acquisition.In this paper we argue that there is no compelling evidence to support either of the first two hypotheses. Moreover, we provide evidence concerning functional categories in L2 acquisition consistent with the claim that UG is fully available to the L2 learner (see also Flynn 1987; Li 1993; Martohardjono 1992; Schwartz & Sprouse 1991; Thomas 1991; White 1989). In addition, we will attempt to clarify some of currently unclear theoretical issues that arise with respect to positing UG as an explanatory theory of L2 acquisition. We will also investigate in some detail certain crucial methodological questions involved in experimentally testing the role of UG in L2 acquisition and finally, we will present a set of experimental results of our own supporting the “Full Access” hypothesis.

Second language acquisition: Theoretical and experimental issues in contemporary research

In this paper we argue that investigation of third language (L3) acquisition by adults and children provides essential new insights about the language learning process that neither the study of first language (L1) nor second language (L2) acquisition alone can provide. The focus of this paper concerns the role the learner's L1 plays in succeeding language acquisition. Specifically, does the L1 maintain a privileged role in all subsequent language acquisition or is it possible that all languages known can play a role in subsequent language acquisition? Results from several ongoing L3 acquisition studies investigating adults and children learning English as an L3, whose L1 is Kazakh and whose L2 is Russian, are reported in this paper. We compare the learners' patterns of acquisition in production of three types of restrictive relative clauses. Adults are compared to children; speakers are compared at comparable levels of linguistic competence in the languages. Results indicate that the L1 does not play a pr...

The Cumulative-Enhancement Model for Language Acquisition: Comparing Adults' and Children's Patterns of Development in First, Second and Third Language Acquisition of Relative Clauses

The burgeoning role of technology in society has provided opportunities for the development of new means of communication for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) This paper offers an organizational framework for describing traditional and emerging augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) technology, and highlights how tools within this framework can support a visual approach to everyday communication and improve language instruction The growing adoption of handheld media devices along with applications acquired via a consumer-oriented delivery model suggests a potential paradigm shift in AAC for people with ASD

Applying Technology to Visually Support Language and Communication in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders

A Theoretical and Historical Context for Second Language Acquisition.- Linguistic Theory: Generative Grammar.- The Ontogenesis of the Field of Second Language Learning Research.- B Parameters.- Parameterized Grammatical Theory and Language Acquisition: A Study of the Acquisition of Verb Placement and Inflection by Children and Adults.- Nature of Development in L2 Acquisition and Implications for Theories of Language Acquisition in General.- Linguistic Theory. Neurolinguistics and Second Language Acquisition.- Second Language Acquisition: A Biolinguistic Perspective.- Neurolinguistics and Parameter Setting.- C Markedness in Second Language Acquisition.- The Acquisition of Infinitive and Gerund Complements by Second Language Learners.- Island Effects in Second Language Acquisition.- On the Role of Linguistic Theory in Explanations of Second Language Developmental Grammars.- L2 Learnability: Delimiting the Domain of Core Grammar as Distinct from the Marked Periphery.- Kinds of Markedness.- D Additional Evidence for Universal Grammar.- The Categorial Status of Modals and L2 Acquisition.- UG-Generated Knowledge in Adult Second Language Acquisition.- Prosodic Phonology and the Acquisition of a Second Language.- Universal Grammar in Second Language Acquisition: Promises and Problems in Critically Relating Theory and Empirical Studies.- E Complementary Perspectives.- Pidginization as Language Acquisition.- All Paths Lead to the Mental Lexicon.- Intermorphology and Morphological Theory: A Plea for a Concession.- F Universal Grammar from a Traditional Perspective.- Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory: The Role of Language Transfer.- Grammatical Theory and L2 Acquisition: A Brief Overview.- Typological and Parametric Views of Universals in Second Language Acquisition.- List of Contributors.- Index of Names.- Index of Subjects.

Suzanne Flynn

Papers

Second language acquisition: Theoretical and experimental issues in contemporary research

The Cumulative-Enhancement Model for Language Acquisition: Comparing Adults' and Children's Patterns of Development in First, Second and Third Language Acquisition of Relative Clauses

Applying Technology to Visually Support Language and Communication in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Linguistic Theory in Second Language Acquisition

A parameter-setting model of L2 acquisition