Showing papers by "Ontario Institute for Studies in Education published in 2010"
TL;DR: In an effort to intentionally create the level of deep learning necessary for practitioners to make meaningful changes in their classrooms, professional networks are increasingly being promoted as mechanisms for knowledge creation that can lever the kinds of changes that make a difference for students as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In an effort to intentionally create the level of deep learning necessary for practitioners to make meaningful changes in their classrooms, professional networks are increasingly being promoted as mechanisms for knowledge creation that can lever the kinds of changes that make a difference for students. This paper explores the way networks function by testing a theory of action within England's Networked Learning Communities (NLC) Programme. It presents networks as collaborative systems that support particular ways of working and find expression within 2 distinct organisational units – the network itself and its participant schools. The key networked learning enablers of (a) changed thinking and practice and (b) pupil achievement are identified and described.
218 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that morphological awareness is important for word reading in Spanish, a shallow orthography with a complex morphological system, and that children's L1 is associated with their L2.
Abstract: This study investigated within and cross-language effects of morphological awareness on word reading among Spanish-speaking children who were English Language Learners. Participants were 97 Spanish-speaking children in grade 4 and grade 7. Morphological awareness in Spanish and in English was evaluated with two measures of derivational morphology. The results showed that Spanish morphological awareness contributed unique variance to Spanish word reading after controlling for other reading related variables. English morphological awareness also explained unique variance in English word reading. Cross-linguistic transfer of morphological awareness was observed from Spanish to English, but not from English to Spanish. These results suggest that morphological awareness is important for word reading in Spanish, a shallow orthography with a complex morphological system. They also suggest that morphological awareness developed in children’s L1 is associated with word reading in English, their L2.
217 citations
TL;DR: It is found that heterosexual women had higher (more feminine) left- and right-hand 2D:4D than did lesbians, but there was no difference between heterosexual and gay men.
Abstract: The ratio of the lengths of the second and fourth fingers (2D:4D) may serve as a marker for prenatal androgen signaling. Because people are typically unaware of their 2D:4D, its use allows possible effects of early sex hormone regimes and socialization to be disentangled. We conducted a meta-analysis on relationships between 2D:4D and sexual orientation in men and women in 18 independent samples of men and 16 independent samples of women. Collectively, these samples comprised 1,618 heterosexual men, 1,693 heterosexual women, 1,503 gay men, and 1,014 lesbians. In addition to identifying the normative heterosexual sex difference in 2D:4D for both hands, we found that heterosexual women had higher (more feminine) left- and right-hand 2D:4D than did lesbians, but we found no difference between heterosexual and gay men. Moderator analyses suggested that ethnicity explained some between-studies variation in men. These results add to a literature suggesting that early sex hormone signaling affects sexual orientation in women, and highlight the need for further research exploring the relationships among 2D:4D, sexual orientation, and ethnicity in men.
204 citations
TL;DR: The Supporting Effective Teaching (SET) project as discussed by the authors examined the relationship between elementary general education teachers' beliefs about disability and ability and their roles in inclusive classrooms, and how these are related to teaching practices.
197 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined data use and conditions influencing data use by typical principals and teachers, as well as the relationship between data usage and student performance, and found that principal and teacher use of data is strongly shaped by district leaders in the context of state accountability systems.
Abstract: This study examined data use and conditions influencing data use by typical principals and teachers, as well as the relationship between data use and student performance. The analysis drew upon a multi-method investigation of leadership at the school, district, and state levels. The findings emphasize the leadership of principals in establishing data use purposes and expectations, opportunities, training, access to expertise, and follow-up actions. Principal and teacher use of data is strongly shaped by district leaders in the context of state accountability systems. Statistical evidence linking patterns of data use to achievement test results was weak, and limited to elementary schools.
191 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify characteristics of school districts that have been exceptionally successful in closing gaps in achievement among diverse groups of students, including students in challenging circumstances, using 31 studies.
Abstract: This article identifies characteristics of school districts that have been exceptionally successful in closing gaps in achievement among diverse groups of students, including students in challenging circumstances. Evidence for the paper was provided by 31 studies. These were studies, published in the past ten years, which reported original evidence about the association between one or more district characteristics and some valued set of outcomes, or described one or more practices within a district previously found to be high performing. Ten district characteristics are described and several implications for future policy, research, and practice are outlined.
151 citations
TL;DR: These results reveal a direct link between emotions, arithmetic and low achievement in math and it is suggested that arithmetic-affective priming might be used as an indirect measure of math anxiety.
Abstract: Math anxiety, defined as a negative affective response to mathematics, is known to have deleterious effects on math performance in the general population. However, the assumption that math anxiety is directly related to math performance, has not yet been validated. Thus, our primary objective was to investigate the effects of math anxiety on numerical processing in children with specific deficits in the acquisition of math skills (Developmental Dyscalculia; DD) by using a novel affective priming task as an indirect measure. Participants (12 children with DD and 11 typically-developing peers) completed a novel priming task in which an arithmetic equation was preceded by one of four types of priming words (positive, neutral, negative or related to mathematics). Children were required to indicate whether the equation (simple math facts based on addition, subtraction, multiplication or division) was true or false. Typically, people respond to target stimuli more quickly after presentation of an affectively-related prime than after one that is unrelated affectively. Participants with DD responded faster to targets that were preceded by both negative primes and math-related primes. A reversed pattern was present in the control group. These results reveal a direct link between emotions, arithmetic and low achievement in math. It is also suggested that arithmetic-affective priming might be used as an indirect measure of math anxiety.
144 citations
TL;DR: The authors provide a brief history of this development, indicate some of the distinguishing features of different lines of narrative inquiry, and describe a practical line of work which explicitly addresses school-based research.
Abstract: Narrative inquiry is a rapidly developing social sciences and humanities research methodology. In this paper we provide a brief history of this development, indicate some of the distinguishing features of different lines of narrative inquiry, and describe a practical line of work which explicitly addresses school-based research.
142 citations
TL;DR: Findings reveal that young children selectively alter their learning based on others' non-verbal cues of credibility, and underscore the importance of an early sensitivity to socio-cognitive cues for human learning and development.
Abstract: Data from three experiments provide the first evidence that children, at least as young as age two, are vigilant of others' non-verbal cues to credibility, and flexibly use these cues to facilitate learning. Experiment 1 revealed that 2- and 3-year-olds prefer to learn about objects from someone who appears, through non-verbal cues, to be confident in performing actions on those objects than from someone who appears uncertain when performing actions on those objects. Experiment 2 revealed that when 2-year-olds observe only one model perform a single action, either confidently or unconfidently, they do not use the model's level of confidence in this single instance to influence their learning. Experiment 3 revealed that 2-year-olds will use a single model's level of confidence to guide their learning if they have observed that the model has a history of being either consistently confident or consistently uncertain. These findings reveal that young children selectively alter their learning based on others' non-verbal cues of credibility, and underscore the importance of an early sensitivity to socio-cognitive cues for human learning and development.
133 citations
TL;DR: Developing two versions of a therapeutic presence measure, based on an earlier model of presence, revealed that both versions of the TPI had good reliability and construct validity, however, TPI-T had low predictive validity and the T PI-C showed good predictive validity.
Abstract: The authors developed two versions of a therapeutic presence measure, based on an earlier model of presence (Geller & Greenberg, 2002)-Therapeutic Presence Inventory-therapist (TPI-T) and client (TPI-C) versions-to measure in-session therapeutic presence. They explored their reliability and validity in two studies. In the first, items generated from the previously established model were subjected to analyses and expert ratings. In the second study, therapists and clients rated therapists' presence postsession. Therapists also completed the Relationship Inventory, and clients assessed two additional factors: session outcome, using the Client Task Specific Measure-Revised, and therapeutic alliance, using the Working Alliance Inventory. Findings revealed that both versions of the TPI had good reliability and construct validity. However, TPI-T had low predictive validity and the TPI-C showed good predictive validity. In particular, clients reported positive therapeutic alliance and change following sessions when they felt their therapist was present with them.
109 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors take the view that both science, technology, society, environment (STSE) education and conventional forms of socio-scientific issues (SSI)-oriented science education are inadequate to meet the needs and interests of students faced with the demands, issues, and problems of contemporary life.
Abstract: This article takes the view that both science, technology, society, environment (STSE) education and conventional forms of socio-scientific issues (SSI)-oriented science education are inadequate to meet the needs and interests of students faced with the demands, issues, and problems of contemporary life. A much more politicized approach is advocated, with major emphasis on social critique, values clarification, and sociopolitical action.
TL;DR: The SCY project aims at students between 12 and 18 years old and in the course of the project, a total of four SCY missions will be developed, of which one is currently available.
Abstract: Science Created by You (SCY) is a project on learning in science and technology domains. SCY uses a pedagogical approach that centres around products, called 'emerging learning objects' (ELOs) that are created by students. Students work individually and collaboratively in SCY-Lab (the general SCY learning environment) on 'missions' that are guided by socio-scientific questions (for example 'How can we design a CO2-friendly house?'). Fulfilling SCY missions requires a combination of knowledge from different content areas (eg, physics, mathematics, biology, as well as social sciences). While on a SCY mission, students perform several types of learning activities that can be characterised as productive processes (experiment, game, share, explain, design, etc), they encounter multiple resources, collaborate with varying coalitions of peers and use changing constellations of tools and scaffolds. The configuration of SCY-Lab is adaptive to the actual learning situation and may provide advice to students on appropriate learning activities, resources, tools and scaffolds, or peer students who can support the learning process. The SCY project aims at students between 12 and 18 years old. In the course of the project, a total of four SCY missions will be developed, of which one is currently available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
TL;DR: The authors examined whether emotional intelligence, peer social support, and/or family social support partially mediated the influence of verbal IQ on grade level students' emotional intelligence on their performance in school.
Abstract: The objective of this study was to examine, by gender, whether emotional intelligence (EI), peer social support, and/or family social support partially mediated the influence of verbal IQ on Grade ...
TL;DR: Investigation of the online practices of students enrolled in graduate-level distance education courses suggests that many of the practices students adopt are coping mechanisms developed to help students more easily meet course participation requirements.
Abstract: This study investigated the online practices of students enrolled in graduate-level distance education courses. Using interviews and a questionnaire as data sources, the study sought to: (a) identify common practices that students adopt in asynchronous discussions, and (b) gain an understanding of why students adopt them. An analysis of the data suggests that many of the practices are coping mechanisms developed to help students more easily meet course participation requirements. Some of these are time saving strategies designed to reduce information overload (e.g., skimming messages rather than reading them carefully). Other strategies are designed to help students project an image of themselves as knowledgeable and collaborative course participants. It is argued that although these practices provide students with a level of efficiency in terms of meeting course requirements, they may inadvertently undermine learning.
TL;DR: It is argued that an anti-colonial analysis of IM provides the ‘missing link’ to understanding the fundamental processes through which biomedicine appropriates CAM, and the reasons it continues to do so.
Abstract: The ideal of combining biomedicine with traditional, complementary and/or alternative medicine (CAM) is now widespread in global healthcare systems. Called integrative medicine (IM) or integrative healthcare (IHC), biomedicine and CAM are being combined in myriad healthcare settings; select medical curricula are incorporating CAM while new ‘integrative’ physicians are graduating; and widescale health policy on CAM is being created by such organisations as the World Health Organization (WHO). While the IM trend is fast developing, little theory has been applied to examining the epistemology of this new health phenomenon and if, in fact, integration between divergent health paradigms is possible. Drawing on an anti-colonial analysis of new IM settings in Canada, we suggest that fundamental challenges exist to integrating biomedicine and CAM that have been largely ignored in the push for integration. They are: (a) the devaluing of non-biomedical health knowledges; (b) accepting only biomedical eviden...
TL;DR: Children with ADHD--EFD and children with ADHD + EFD were comparable in terms of ADHD symptomatology and school functioning, however, children withADHD had significantly lower IQ and more intra-individual response variability than no EFD counterparts.
Abstract: Objective: The study investigates behavioural, academic, cognitive, and motivational aspects of functioning in school-age children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with and without an executive function deficit (EFD)
Method: Children with ADHD – EFD (n = 22) and children with ADHD + EFD (n = 26) were compared on aspects of ADHD behaviour, school functioning, general cognitive ability, intra-individual response variability, affective decision-making, and delay aversion
Results: Children with ADHD – EFD and children with ADHD + EFD were comparable in terms of ADHD symptomatology and school functioning However, children with ADHD + EFD had significantly lower IQ and more intra-individual response variability than no EFD counterparts Children with ADHD alone appeared more delay averse on the C-DT task than children with ADHD + EFD
Conclusions: Some children with ADHD were primarily characterised by problems with executive functions and variability others by problems with delay aversion supporting multiple pathway models of ADHD Given the exploratory nature of the study, results are in need of replication
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the results of research into the impact of principal turnover on schools, and the ability of schools to mitigate the negative effects of frequent turnover by distributing leadership in the schools.
Abstract: This article presents the results of research into the impact of principal turnover on schools, and the ability of schools to mitigate the negative effects of frequent turnover by distributing leadership in the schools. The findings from this qualitative and quantitative analysis show that rapid principal turnover does indeed have a negative effect on a school, primarily affecting the school culture. Where there is high principal turnover, taking a coordinated approach to leadership distribution appears to mitigate at least some of the negative consequences of leadership turnover.
TL;DR: Compared to clinical control adolescents and adults on the Gender Identity/Gender Dysphoria Questionnaire for Adolescents and Adults (GIDYQ–AA), degree of self-reported gender dysphoria was significantly correlated with recall of cross-gender behavior in childhood—a test of convergent validity.
Abstract: This study aimed to provide further validity evidence for the dimensional measurement of gender identity and gender dysphoria in both adolescents and adults. Adolescents and adults with gender identity disorder (GID) were compared to clinical control (CC) adolescents and adults on the Gender Identity/Gender Dysphoria Questionnaire for Adolescents and Adults (GIDYQ-AA), a 27-item scale originally developed by Deogracias et al. (2007). In Study 1, adolescents with GID (n = 44) were compared to CC adolescents (n = 98); and in Study 2, adults with GID (n = 41) were compared to CC adults (n = 94). In both studies, clients with GID self-reported significantly more gender dysphoria than did the CCs, with excellent sensitivity and specificity rates. In both studies, degree of self-reported gender dysphoria was significantly correlated with recall of cross-gender behavior in childhood-a test of convergent validity. The research and clinical utility of the GIDYQ-AA is discussed, including directions for further research in distinct clinical populations.
TL;DR: In this article, a microgenetic analysis of the languaging behaviour of two university students learning French as a second language was conducted. And they identified as a high and a low languager.
Abstract: The growing literature about the positive effect of languaging or self-explaining has so far failed to determine why some learners benefit from languaging more than others. We attempt to address this gap through a microgenetic analysis of the languaging behaviour of two university students learning French as a second language, whom we identify as a high and a low languager. We trace the development of their understanding of the grammatical concept of voice in French. Our findings suggest that languaging is a self-scaffolding tool that our high languager used efficiently to solve cognitive conflicts, mediate mental processes, and construct meaning in general. On the basis of our results, we call for a change in educational practices that would allow for more learner agency through self-scaffolding mediated by languaging.
TL;DR: Results suggest that counselors need to take sexual orientation issues, particularly past experiences of discrimination, when working with LGBT clients as well as academic and career choices for students using a questionnaire.
Abstract: This is an empirical study of academic and career choices for 119 lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) students using a questionnaire Respondents who reported that their sexual orientation influenced their choices a great deal indicated that the influences were both positive and negative This group was most likely to have experienced anti-LGBT discrimination in the past In comparing lesbian, bisexual people, and gay males, gay males and respondents from visible minorities were the most likely to feel a negative impact, while bisexual respondents were the least likely There were too few transgender respondents to include in these statistical comparisons; however, frequencies suggest that transgender people may be the most vulnerable of all Results suggest that counselors need to take sexual orientation issues, particularly past experiences of discrimination, when working with LGBT clients
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the effects of cross-language transfer on the development of phonological awareness and literacy skills among Chinese children who received different amounts of English instruction, and found that English instruction accelerates Chinese phonological and Pinyin skills through cross language transfer.
Abstract: The present investigation consists of two studies examining the effects of cross-language transfer on the development of phonological awareness and literacy skills among Chinese children who received different amounts of English instruction. Study 1 compared Chinese students in regular English programs (92 first graders and 93 third graders) with peers who did not receive English instruction (86 first graders and 91 third graders). Study 2 was a 2-year longitudinal study that followed Chinese children from the beginning of Grade 1 to the end of Grade 2; the children attended either an intensive English program (79 children) or a regular English program (80 children). In both studies, children received phonological awareness tasks in English and Chinese, and literacy measures in Chinese. Results suggest that (a) English instruction accelerates the development of Chinese phonological awareness and Pinyin skills through cross-language transfer; (b) the pattern of cross-language transfer reflects the phonological features of English, the source language; and (c) a threshold level of 2nd language proficiency is required before any positive effects can be detected in the 1st language.
TL;DR: The article suggests that feminist informed risk factor research needs to consider gender as it intersects with other social variables as a relevant higher level risk factor and examine its relationship to individual level risk factors such as the internalization of thinness or negative body image.
Abstract: This review utilizes a feminist lens to discuss risk factor research and prevention work in the field of eating disorders. The article suggests that feminist informed risk factor research needs to consider gender as it intersects with other social variables as a relevant higher level risk factor and examine its relationship to individual level risk factors such as the internalization of thinness or negative body image. The article also highlights the key elements of participatory approaches and systemic changes to feminist informed prevention work. Prevention work conducted to date suggests the relevance of these elements to achieving behavioral changes in prevention work.
TL;DR: It is suggested that earlier phase-locked oscillatory power may reflect the relay of input from SI to SII, whereas later non-phase-locked rhythms reflect stimulus-induced oscillations that are modulated by selective attention and may thus reflect enhanced processing of the stimulus underlying the perception of somatosensory events.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on the neo-liberal underpinning of state policy, where individuals are expected to take responsibility for meeting the needs of changing labour market co-...
Abstract: Critiques of lifelong learning have focused on the neo‐liberal underpinning of state policy, where individuals are expected to take responsibility for meeting the needs of changing labour market co...
TL;DR: High correlations between student engagement in knowledge building and vocabulary growth suggest that productive vocabulary can be developed through sustained knowledge building in subject areas.
Abstract: Productive knowledge work and high-level literacy are essential for engagement in a Knowledge society. In the research reported in this article, students were engaged in sustained collaborative knowledge building in science and social studies. The vocabulary growth of 22 students over Grades 3 and 4 was traced, based on their entries to Knowledge Forum—a knowledge building environment used as an integral part of classroom work. It is the communal space where knowledge work-ideas, reference material, results of experiments, and so forth-is entered and continually improved. Analysis of lexical frequency profiles indicated significant growth in pro- ductive written vocabulary, including academic words. In a Grade 4 inquiry, students incorporated almost all the domain-specific terms at and below their current grade level, and most of those expected for upper grade levels (5-8) based on the curriculum guidelines. Domain-specific and academic words were correlated with depth of under- standing. High correlations between student engagement in knowledge building and vocabulary growth suggest that productive vocabulary can be developed through sus- tained knowledge building in subject areas.
TL;DR: In this paper, the mediating role of early childhood home enrichment in the association between maternal education and academic achievement in the reading and math of 1,093 children aged 7 (Grade 1).
Abstract: Research Findings: This article addresses the mediating role of early childhood home enrichment in the association between maternal education and academic achievement in the reading and math of 1,093 children aged 7 (Grade 1). Data were extracted from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development database. We used the bootstrapping procedure, a new method recently developed to assess multiple mediator effects simultaneously. Five potential mediating aspects of naturally occurring enriching home environments (HOME) were measured at 54 months of age: learning materials, learning stimulation, parental responsiveness, modeling of social maturity, and variety in experience. Gender differences in the mediating role of aspects of home enrichment were also examined for the letter–word reading and math subscales of the Woodcock–Johnson Psychoeducational Battery–Revised. Results indicated that all 5 aspects of home enrichment mediated the association between maternal education and reading achievement...
TL;DR: The authors explored the relationship between the past and current reading habits of pre-service teachers in relation to their reading and writing abilities and found that teachers who received higher scores on the comprehension subtest of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test recalled a higher degree of early school emphasis on enjoying stories and mastering reading skills, frequent childhood visits to the library, frequently being read to as a child and a high degree of enjoyment associated with reading.
Abstract: Pre‐service teachers’ reading habits and their literacy abilities affect their views toward teaching reading and writing and how they implement literacy instruction. This study explored the relationship between the past and current reading habits of pre‐service teachers in relation to their reading and writing abilities. Participating teacher candidates completed a questionnaire regarding their reading habits, completed two reading comprehension components of the Nelson‐Denny Reading Test and provided a writing sample. Teacher candidates who received higher scores on the comprehension subtest of the Nelson‐Denny Reading Test recalled a higher degree of early school emphasis on enjoying stories and mastering reading skills, frequent childhood visits to the library, frequently being read to as a child and a higher degree of enjoyment associated with reading.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss two types of discourse: cognitive impairment of a long-term care facility (LTCF) reflected in the institution's language policy and in the language use of several caregivers of the LTCF, and the discourse of "small" stories (Bamberg and Georgakopoulou 2008) told by an older adult suffering from multiple sclerosis and experiencing memory loss.
Abstract: In this paper, we discuss two types of discourse: the first one—the discourse of cognitive impairment of a long-term care facility (LTCF) reflected in the institution’s language policy and in the language use of several caregivers of the LTCF; and the second one, the discourse of ‘small’ stories (Bamberg and Georgakopoulou 2008) told by Alise, a resident of the LTCF. We investigate how the participant of the study, Alise, an older adult suffering from multiple sclerosis and experiencing memory loss, positioned herself depending on which discourse was being used, and through a series of small stories indexed her re-emerging identity as a capable communicator. By approaching narrative as a type of social practice rather than a text and expanding it with sociocultural views on language, we analyze selected excerpts between the researcher and the participant across 12 data collection sessions in order to demonstrate how the participant’s changes in identity (and memory) were reflected in and facilitated by Alise’s small stories. In addition, we investigate why the series of small stories told by Alise facilitated her full engagement, in contrast to the discourse of cognitive impairment imposed upon her by the institution. We also demonstrate that Alise’s small stories, which were used as a site for identity construction, helped this socially disengaged resident of the LTCF to reposition herself as an active, capable and valid participant in communication, thus positively affecting her sense of self-esteem and well-being. Finally, we emphasize the implications of our research for the professionals, volunteers and family members involved in caring for older people with dementia. Specifically, we emphasize the importance of recognizing a ‘small story’ in particular, and languaging in general, as a mediator of positive change. This recognition, in our view, is essential in making meaningful the lives of people experiencing memory loss and in improving their quality of life.
TL;DR: This paper explored the role of languaging in mediating between students' understanding of a grammatical concept and their written production of the forms related to that concept, a process called languaging.
Abstract: In this study, framed within a sociocultural theory of mind, we explore the role of languaging in mediating between students’ understanding of a grammatical concept and their written production of the forms related to that concept. The development of scientific concepts, in this case of the concept of voice in French, involves the use of language to mediate awareness and understanding of it, a process we call languaging. Using Vygotsky's distinction between scientific and spontaneous (everyday) concepts, we demonstrate the development of the grammatical concept of voice in French in which our two university-level participants progressed from no knowledge of voice to an emergent knowledge through languaging about a series of cards containing an explanation of the concept. The nature of this emergent knowledge was highlighted by the discrepancy in performance between written and oral modes of testing. Implications for teaching and testing are reviewed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the findings from a two-year research project, Sociocultural Perspectives on Behaviour and Classroom Management (SPBCM), which examined the social and cultural context of challenging student behaviours in four model inner city schools in Toronto, Canada.
Abstract: Elementary teachers often cite challenging student behaviours and classroom management as areas of concern and therefore priorities for professional development. In this paper, the authors discuss the findings from a two-year research project, Sociocultural Perspectives on Behaviour and Classroom Management (SPBCM). SPBCM examined the social and cultural context of challenging student behaviours in four model inner city schools in Toronto, Canada. The purpose of SPBCM was to gain a better understanding of elementary teachers' perceptions of challenging student behaviours and the strategies they use to address those behaviours. Fifty teachers in total participated in individual and group interviews. Results were interpreted using Ronald Heifetz's concept of technical versus adaptive problems of leadership. Extending this theory to the realm of classroom management, the authors aimed to gain a better understanding of whether or not the interventions described were premised on the notion of challenging behav...