Showing papers in "Child Development in 1988"
TL;DR: Different styles of affect regulation and representational bias associated with particular working models of attachment are interpreted in terms of different styles of distress, perceived competence, and social support.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the coherence of attachment organization during late adolescence. In a sample of 53 first-year college students, 3 kinds of working models of attachment were assessed with the Adult Attachment Interview: Dismissing of Attachment, Secure, and Preoccupied with Attachment. Affect regulation was evaluated with peer Q-sort ratings of Ego-Resiliency, Ego-Undercontrol, Hostility, and Anxiety, and representations of self and others were assessed with self-report measures of distress, perceived competence, and social support. The Secure group was rated as more ego-resilient, less anxious, and less hostile by peers and reported little distress and high levels of social support. The Dismissing group was rated low on ego-resilience and higher on hostility by peers and reported more distant relationships in terms of more loneliness and low levels of social support from family. The Preoccupied group was viewed as less ego-resilient and more anxious by peers and reported high levels of personal distress, while viewing their family as more supportive than the Dismissing group. These findings are interpreted in terms of different styles of affect regulation and representational bias associated with particular working models of attachment.
1,548Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the development of children's understanding of representational change and its relation to other cognitive developments was investigated. But, the results showed that children begin to consider alternative representations of the same object at about age 4.
Abstract: This research concerns the development of children's understanding of representational change and its relation to other cognitive developments. Children were shown deceptive objects, and the true nature of the objects was then revealed. Children were then asked what they thought the object was when they first saw it, testing their understanding of representational change; what another child would think the object was, testing their understanding of false belief; and what the object looked like and really was, testing their understanding of the appearance-reality distinction. Most 3-year-olds answered the representational change question incorrectly. Most 5-year-olds did not make this error. Children's performance on the representational change question was poorer than their performance on the false-belief question. There were correlations between performance on all 3 tasks. Apparently children begin to be able to consider alternative representations of the same object at about age 4.
1,082Â citations
TL;DR: Abused mothers who were able to break the abusive cycle were significantly more likely to have received emotional support from a nonabusive adult during childhood, participated in therapy during any period of their lives, and to have had aNonabusive and more stable, emotionally supportive, and satisfying relationship with a mate.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to identify variables that distinguish mothers who broke the cycle of abuse from mothers who were abused as children and who also abused their own children. Based on maternal interviews and questionnaires completed over a 64-month period, measures of mothers' past and current relationship experiences, stressful life events, and personality characteristics were obtained. Abused mothers who were able to break the abusive cycle were significantly more likely to have received emotional support from a nonabusive adult during childhood, participated in therapy during any period of their lives, and to have had a nonabusive and more stable, emotionally supportive, and satisfying relationship with a mate. Abused mothers who reenacted their maltreatment with their own children experienced significantly more life stress and were more anxious, dependent, immature, and depressed.
610Â citations
TL;DR: Significant, albeit modest, connections between attachment and the self were established; furthermore, specific patterns of self-perceptions were related to particular patterns of attachment.
Abstract: Bowlby has proposed that child-parent attachment is important in the child's representation of self. In this study, the child's representation of self was examined in connection with child-mother attachment in a sample of 52 white, middle-class 6-year-olds. Children were seen in 2 play sessions, 1 month apart. Quality of attachment was assessed in each session based on the child's behavior on reunion following a laboratory separation of approximately 1 hour, using a system devised by Main and Cassidy. Aggregated attachment ratings and classifications were assigned based on the child's behavior in both reunions. Assessments of the self consisted of (a) assessment of the self within the relationship with the attachment figure (an incomplete doll stories procedure), (b) assessment of the child's perceptions of how an unspecified "other" views him or her (a puppet interview), (c) direct assessment of global self-esteem independent of the attachment relationship (the subscale of global self-esteem from Harter's Perceived Competence Scale for Children), (d) a second direct assessment of global self-esteem (an interview with the child), and (e) assessment of feelings of competence and acceptance in specific domains that may be precursors of self-esteem (Harter's Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children). Significant, albeit modest, connections between attachment and the self were established; furthermore, specific patterns of self-perceptions were related to particular patterns of attachment.
575Â citations
TL;DR: Gentner et al. as discussed by the authors used structure-mapping theory to make distinctions among kinds of metaphors and found that children can understand metaphors based on shared object attributes before those based on a shared relational structure.
Abstract: GENTNER, DEDRE. Metaphor as Structure Mapping: The Relational Shift. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1988, 59, 47-59. The goal of this research is to clarify the development of metaphor by using structure-mapping theory to make distinctions among kinds of metaphors. In particular, it is proposed that children can understand metaphors based on shared object attributes before those based on shared relational structure. This predicts (1) early ability to interpret metaphors based on shared attributes, (2) a developmental increase in ability to interpret metaphors based on shared relational structure, and (3) a shift from primarily attributional to primarily relational interpretations for metaphors that can be understood in either way. 2 experiments were performed to test these claims. There were 3 kinds of metaphors, varying in whether the shared information forming the basis for the interpretation was attributional, relational, or both. In Experiment 1, children aged 5-6 and 910 and adults produced interpretations of the 3 types of metaphors. The attributionality and relationality of their interpretations were scored by independent judges. In Experiment 2, children aged 45 and 7-8 and adults chose which of 2 interpretations-relational or attributional-of a metaphor they preferred. In both experiments, relational responding increased significantly with age, but attributional responding did not. These results indicate a developmental shift toward a focus on relational structure in metaphor interpretation.
565Â citations
TL;DR: This article examined almost 2,000 Strange Situation classifications obtained in 8 different countries and found substantial intracultural differences were established; in a number of instances, samples from 1 country resembled those in other countries more than they did each other.
Abstract: VAN IJZENDOORN, MARINUs H., and KROONENBERG, PIETER M. Cross-cultural Patterns of Attachment: A Meta-Analysis of the Strange Situation. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1988, 59, 147-156. Crosscultural research using Ainsworth's Strange Situation tends to rely on incomplete information and to concentrate on individual rather than aggregated samples. In this study, a wider perspective is taken by examining almost 2,000 Strange Situation classifications obtained in 8 different countries. Differences and similarities between distributions in classifications of samples are investigated using correspondence analysis. Aggregation of samples per country and continent allowed for a firmer empirical basis for cross-cultural analysis. Substantial intracultural differences were established; in a number of instances, samples from 1 country resembled those in other countries more than they did each other. The data also suggest a pattern of cross-cultural differences, in which A classifications emerge as relatively more prevalent in Western European countries and C classifications as relatively more frequent in Israel and Japan. Intracultural variation was nearly 1.5 times the crosscultural variation.
564Â citations
TL;DR: Behavioral data relating to peer social status were collected from peers, teachers, and observers on both first- and third-grade boys, indicating that peers and teachers may be better sources of information about aggression in this group of boys.
Abstract: Behavioral data relating to peer social status were collected from peers, teachers, and observers on both first- and third-grade boys (ages 6-7 and 8-9 years, respectively). Peer and teacher ratings had greater intermethod agreement than observer data, although all 3 sources provided evidence that rejected and controversial boys were more aggressive than other boys. However, relatively little aggression was observed among the older boys, indicating that peers and teachers may be better sources of information about aggression in this group. Observational data differentiated among status groups on measures of activity (on task vs. off-task, and prosocial play vs. solitary activity) for both age groups. Rejected boys displayed little prosocial behavior according to peers and teachers, but were not less often engaged in prosocial play, according to observers. Neglected boys were the most solitary group during play; however, teachers rated rejected boys as the most solitary, contrary to observations. Controversial boys were seen as highly aggressive by all sources but as highly prosocial only by peers and observers.
531Â citations
TL;DR: Drug usage in early adolescence (age 14) was related to concurrent and preschool personality characteristics for a sample of 54 girls and 51 boys and the personality concomitants and antecedents of drug use differed somewhat as a function of gender and the drug used.
Abstract: Drug usage in early adolescence (age 14) was related to concurrent and preschool personality characteristics for a sample of 54 girls and 51 boys. The personality concomitants and antecedents of drug use differed somewhat as a function of gender and the drug used. At age 14, for both sexes, the use of marijuana was related to ego undercontrol, while the use of harder drugs reflected an absence of ego-resiliency, with undercontrol also a contributing factor. At ages 3/4, subsequent adolescent drug usage in girls related to both undercontrol and lower ego-resiliency. In boys, adolescent drug usage related strongly, during their nursery school years, to undercontrol and with resiliency having no long-term implications. Early family environment related to adolescent drug usage in girls but not in boys. Drug usage in adolescent girls was related to homes earlier identified as unstructured and laissez-faire, where there was little pressure to achieve. Drug usage related to other substance use and, in boys, to IQ decline from age 11 to age 18. Implications of these results for contemporary views regarding adolescent drug usage are discussed.
481Â citations
TL;DR: Very few differences were noted between those infants' ratings when interacting with their mother versus the stranger, suggesting that their "depressed" style of interacting is not specific to their interactions with depressed mothers but generalizes to their interaction with nondepressed adults as early as 3 months of age.
Abstract: To determine whether the "depressed" behavior (e.g., less positive affect and lower activity level) of infants noted during interactions with their "depressed" mothers generalizes to their interactions with nondepressed adults, 74 3-6-month-old infants of "depressed" and nondepressed mothers were videotaped in face-to-face interactions with their mothers and with nondepressed female strangers. "Depressed" mothers and their infants received lower ratings on all behaviors than nondepressed mothers and infants. Although the infants of "depressed" versus nondepressed mothers also received lower ratings with the stranger adult, very few differences were noted between those infants' ratings when interacting with their mother versus the stranger, suggesting that their "depressed" style of interacting is not specific to their interactions with depressed mothers but generalizes to their interactions with nondepressed adults as early as 3 months of age.
478Â citations
TL;DR: MILLER et al. as discussed by the authors divided parents' beliefs about children's cognitive development into two general categories: beliefs about developmental processes and beliefs about specific abilities, and found that parents do hold beliefs of various sorts and that these beliefs often relate in predicted ways to hypothesized determinants, to parental childrearing practices, and to children's development.
Abstract: MILLER, ScoTrr A. Parents' Beliefs about Children's Cognitive Development. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1988, 59, 259-285. Parents' beliefs about children's cognitive development are of interest both as a form of adult social cognition and for their possible effects on parents' behavior and children's development. This article divides beliefs into 2 general categories: beliefs about developmental processes and beliefs about specific abilities. After an initial presentation of methods and descriptive data for each category, the discussion is organized in terms of 3 issues: origins of parents' beliefs, relations between beliefs and parental behavior, and relations between beliefs and children's cognitive development. The evidence indicates that parents do hold beliefs of various sorts and that these beliefs often relate in predicted ways to hypothesized determinants, to parental childrearing practices, and to children's development. On the negative side, predicted relations are not always found, they are generally small in magnitude, and their causal basis is often not clear. 4 suggested directions for future research are discussed.
471Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a more extensive comparison of vocal development in deaf and hearing infants indicates that the traditional belief that audition plays only a minor role in infant vocal development depends upon evidence that deaf infants produce the same kinds of babbling sounds as hearing infants.
Abstract: The traditional belief that audition plays only a minor role in infant vocal development depends upon evidence that deaf infants produce the same kinds of babbling sounds as hearing infants. Evidence in support of this position has been very limited. A more extensive comparison of vocal development in deaf and hearing infants indicates that the traditional belief is in error. Well-formed syllable production is established in the first 10 months of life by hearing infants but not by deaf infants, indicating that audition plays an important role in vocal development. The difference between babbling in the deaf and hearing is apparent if infant vocal sounds are observed from a metaphonological perspective, a view that takes account of the articulatory/acoustic patterns of speech sounds in all mature spoken languages.
TL;DR: The spontaneous development by normal infants of nonverbal gestures to symbolically represent objects, needs, states, and qualities are presented and it is made that these gestures and early words are both representative of common underlying mechanisms, in particular, the recognition that things have names.
Abstract: 2 studies are presented that document the spontaneous development by normal infants of nonverbal gestures to symbolically represent objects, needs, states, and qualities. These symbolic gestures are shown to be a typical rather than rare phenomenon of early development and to function in ways similar to early verbal symbols. Indeed, the case is made that these gestures and early words are both representative of common underlying mechanisms, in particular, the recognition that things have names. In the first study, mothers of 38 17-month-old infants were interviewed in regard to their infants' verbal and nonverbal development. The second study, designed to document with greater precision the findings of the interview study, is a longitudinal study of 16 infants who were followed from 11 to 24 months. Both studies provide evidence that symbolic gestures tend to develop in tandem with the child's early words, that girls tend to rely more heavily than boys on such gestures, that structured parent-child interactions are important to the development of these gestures, that the gestures tend to depict the function rather than the form of objects, and that the use of gestural labels is positively related to verbal vocabulary development. Implications of these findings for theories of language development and for speech pathology are discussed.
TL;DR: Adolescents at all ages, however, were more likely to reason about the multifaceted and personal issues as personal and sort them as under personal jurisdiction than were parents; parents were morelikely to reason conventionally andsort them as contingent on parental authority than were adolescents.
Abstract: This study assessed adolescents' and parents' conceptions of parental authority. Subjects were 102 children ranging from fifth to twelfth grade (age range = 10.2-18.3 years) from 2-parent families and their parents. They were divided into 4 groups according to children's grade level. Subjects were presented with 15 items pertaining to family transgressions (4 moral, 4 conventional, 3 personal, and 4 multifaceted, containing conventional and personal components). For each act, subjects were asked to judge the legitimacy of parental jurisdiction, justify its wrongness or permissibility, and assess its contingency on parental authority. As expected, all family members treated both moral and conventional issues as more legitimately subject to parental jurisdiction than multifaceted and personal issues. With increasing age of the adolescent, both parents and children became less likely to reason about the multifaceted and personal issues as conventional and sort them as contingent on parental authority; they became more likely to reason about and sort them as under the adolescents' personal jurisdiction. Adolescents at all ages, however, were more likely to reason about the multifaceted and personal issues as personal and sort them as under personal jurisdiction than were parents. Parents were more likely to reason conventionally and sort them as contingent on parental authority than were adolescents. These findings are discussed in terms of research on adolescent development, individuation, and social-cognitive development.
TL;DR: The work reported here was designed to assess deferred imitation at a younger age than has been tested heretofore (9-month-old infants), using a long delay period (24 hours) and a variety of tasks (three items).
Abstract: The ability of 9-month-old infants to imitate simple actions with novel objects was investigated. Both immediate and deferred imitation were tested, the latter by interposing a 24-hour delay between the stimulus-presentation and response periods. The results provide evidence for both immediate and deferred imitation; moreover, imitative responding was not significantly dampened by the 24-hour delay. The findings demonstrate that there exists some underlying capacity for deferring imitation of certain acts well under 1 year of age, and thus that this ability does not develop in a stagelike step function at about 18-24 months as commonly predicted. These findings also show that imitation in early infancy can span wide enough delays to be of potential service in social development; actions on novel objects that are observed one day can be stored by the child and repeated the next day. The study of deferred imitation provides a largely untapped method for investigating the nature and development of recall memory in the preverbal child.
TL;DR: Goodnow et al. as discussed by the authors present a review of research on parents' ideas about parenting and development, drawing together research by developmentalists and social psychology on attitudes, schemas, and social categorization.
Abstract: GOODNOW, JACQUELINE J. Parents' Ideas, Actions, and Feelings: Models and Methods from Developmental and Social Psychology. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 59, 286-320. Research on parents' ideas has been described as flourishing but relatively atheoretical, and as in need of closer attention to possible methods. To help meet these problems, this review draws together research by developmentalists on parents' ideas about parenting and development, and research in social psychology on attitudes, schemas, and social categorization. The review notes first the presence of a common topic-"social cognition"-and some common features to the history of research by developmental and social psychologists on that topic. It proceeds to outline developmental and social approaches to common issues: the likelihood of change vs. perseverance in ideas; the sources of ideas (constructions from individual experience vs. cultural scripts); links between ideas and actions; links between ideas and feelings; and the impact of one generation's ideas upon the development of the next. For each of these issues, the aim is to demonstrate how models and methods in social psychology can be used to benefit research on parents' ideas. For research on parents, the general argument is that the critical steps in any analysis of ideas and their interactions with actions, feelings, or outcomes are the explicit statement and development of hypotheses and the search for promising methods to accompany them. For developmental psychology in general, the review is offered as an example of the benefits to drawing from fields such as social psychology, and as a filtered introduction to some relevant but often unfamiliar material.
TL;DR: Results showed children's behavioral and developmental status, as well as mothers' internal models, to be associated with dyadic behavior, even with the effects of mothers' behavior removed.
Abstract: Interactional behavior of mothers and preschool children was studied in light of mothers' internal models of relationships and select child characteristics. Children with behavior problems who were developmentally intact (n = 20) and developmentally delayed (n = 20), and a matched nonclinic group (n = 24), were studied in a problem-solving session. Mothers' help and support, and children's approach to tasks, relationship to mother, and overall experience were scored. Mothers' internal models of relationships, based on descriptions of childhood relationships, were characterized as detached, preoccupied, or secure (attachment classifications). Results showed children's behavioral and developmental status, as well as mothers' internal models, to be associated with dyadic behavior. Children's behavior corresponded to mothers' internal models and to behavioral and developmental status even with the effects of mothers' behavior removed. Discriminant analysis correctly classified 93% of the sample into clinic and nonclinic groups and into the 3 attachment classifications.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluated the abilities of 5-year-olds to build a replica of a Lego model with either expert or novice builders and found that children were able to generalize their skills.
Abstract: AZMITIA, MARGARITA. Peer Interaction and Problem Solving: When Are Two Heads Better Than One? CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1988, 59, 87-96. 80 5-year-olds participated in 4 sessions in which they built a replica of a Lego model. During the first session, children's building competence was assessed. Based on their performance, children were classified as either expert or novice builders. Children then participated in 2 sessions in which they built alone or with a partner. There were 3 types of dyads: novice, expert, and mixed ability (expert-novice). Their performance was compared with that of novice and expert singletons. In the final session, children's ability to copy 2 new models was assessed to determine whether they generalized the skills acquired during interaction. Collaboration was more conducive to learning than independent work, and children were able to generalize their skills. However, these conclusions were qualified by the fact that children's expertise and that of their partners, the acquisition of task strategies, the quality of verbal discussion, children's tendency to observe and imitate their partners, and experts' tendency to provide guidance mediated learning.
TL;DR: Wimmer et al. as mentioned in this paper found that children at any age were able to obtain knowledge and could reliably introspect on the existence of knowledge obtained through visual and linguistic information, most 3 and some 4-year-olds seemed completely ignorant about the causal connection between access to an informational source and resulting knowledge.
Abstract: WIMMER, HEINZ; HOGREFE, G.-JORGEN; and PERNER, JOSEF. Children's Understanding of Informational Access as Source of Knowledge. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1988, 59, 386-396. A sharp improvement was found between 3 years and 5 years in children's understanding of the role of visual perception and linguistic communication in knowledge formation. Although children at any age were able to obtain knowledge and could reliably introspect on the existence of knowledge obtained through visual and linguistic information, most 3and some 4-year-olds seemed completely ignorant about the causal connection between access to an informational source and resulting knowledge. They could not tell how they themselves had acquired a particular piece of knowledge (i.e., whether they had been shown or told). They were also incapable of assessing another person's knowledge of a fact on the basis of observing that person being deprived of or being given information about that fact.
TL;DR: For instance, this paper found that 3, 4, and 5-year-olds learned about the contents of a drawer in three different ways: they saw the contents, were told about them, or inferred their identity from a clue.
Abstract: GOPNIK, ALISON, and GRAF, PETER. Knowing How You Know: Young Children's Ability to Identify and Remember the Sources of Their Beliefs. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1988, 59, 1366-1371. Young children's understanding of the sources of their beliefs was investigated. 3, 4, and 5-year-olds learned about the contents of a drawer in 3 different ways: they saw the contents, were told about them, or inferred their identity from a clue. Children were then asked, immediately and after a brief delay, how they knew about the contents of the drawer. 3-year-olds had difficulty identifying the sources of their knowledge, while 5-year-olds did not. Moreover, even 3-year-olds who could correctly identify the source immediately had difficulty remembering the source after a delay. Explicit training in identifying sources did not improve the 3-year-olds' performance. These results support the hypothesis that children learn about the causal relation between the world and the mind between 3 and 5 years of age.
TL;DR: The distinctiveness and recognizability of taste-elicited facial expressions in newborns were examined in two studies as discussed by the authors, where the anatomically based Facial Action Coding System adapted for infants (Baby FACS) was used to obtain detailed, objective descriptions of the infants' videotaped facial responses to each solution.
Abstract: The distinctiveness and recognizability of taste-elicited facial expressions in newborns were examined in 2 studies. Sucrose, sodium chloride, citric acid, and quinine hydrochloride solutions were presented to 12 infants at 2 hours of age. In Study 1, the anatomically based Facial Action Coding System adapted for infants (Baby FACS) was used to obtain detailed, objective descriptions of the infants' videotaped facial responses to each solution. Facial responses to sucrose were characterized primarily by facial relaxation and sucking. The responses to salty, sour, and bitter solutions shared the same hedonically negative upper- and midface components but differed in the accompanying lower-face actions: lip pursing in response to sour and mouth gaping in response to bitter. There was no distinctive facial expression for sodium chloride. These findings demonstrate that newborns differentiate sour and bitter from each other and from salt, as well as discriminating sweet versus nonsweet tastes. In Study 2, untrained adults viewing videotapes of the infants' facial reactions made forced-choice judgments identifying the stimuli presented and rated the hedonic tone of the infants' responses. While the judges accurately identified the newborns' responses to sucrose, there were systematic errors in their judgments of the 3 nonsweet stimuli. The judges' hedonic ratings, on the other hand, clearly differentiated between the infants' responses to the bitter stimulus and the other 3 tastes. The findings are discussed in terms of the possible functional origins and communicative value of taste-elicited facial expressions in infants.
TL;DR: Correlations between HOME scores and children's competence in middle childhood revealed a complex portrait that was not explainable with reference to a single model of environmental action.
Abstract: The home environments of 42 10- and 11-year-old children were examined when they were infants and again during middle childhood Significant correlations were observed between home environments measured at both 2 years and 10 years and the children's SRA achievement test scores and their classroom behavior However, the home environment at 6 months was only related to a limited number of classroom behaviors Partial correlations were used to test 3 models of environmental action: Model I (primacy of early experience), Model II (predominance of the contemporary environment), Model III (cumulative effects in stable environments) Strongest relations were noted for the contemporary environment, but all 3 models received some support Correlations between HOME scores and children's competence in middle childhood revealed a complex portrait that was not explainable with reference to a single model of environmental action The version of the HOME Inventory used with families of elementary school children is also introduced
TL;DR: The authors found consistent individual differences in first graders' strategy choices in addition, subtraction, and reading (word identification) in addition to their knowledge of problems and stringency of thresholds for stating retrieved answers.
Abstract: Consistent individual differences were found in first graders' strategy choices in addition, subtraction, and reading (word identification). Differences were present along 2 dimensions: knowledge of problems and stringency of thresholds for stating retrieved answers. Cluster analyses indicated that children could be classified into 3 groups: good students, not-so-good students, and perfectionists. Perfectionists were children who had good knowledge of problems and set very high thresholds for stating retrieved answers, good students also had good knowledge of problems but set lower thresholds, and not-so-good students had less good knowledge of problems and set low thresholds. Differences among the 3 groups were evident on measures not included in the cluster analysis as well as measures that were. Further, the groups differed in standardized achievement test performance 4 months after the experiment in ways consistent with the experimental analysis. The pattern of individual differences was similar in 2 experiments with different samples of children and problems and different methods for assessing strategy use. The results illustrated how detailed cognitive models can contribute to understanding of individual differences.
TL;DR: Analysis of data obtained during Strange Situation assessments conducted when infants were 12 and 13 months of age revealed that infants exposed to 20 or more hours of care per week displayed more avoidance of mother on reunion and were more likely to be classified as insecurely attached to her than infants with less than 20 hours of Care per week.
Abstract: Evidence from 2 longitudinal studies of infant and family development was combined and examined in order to determine if experience of extensive nonmaternal care in the first year is associated with heightened risk of insecure infant-mother attachment and, in the case of sons, insecure infant-father attachment. Analysis of data obtained during Strange Situation assessments conducted when infants were 12 and 13 months of age revealed that infants exposed to 20 or more hours of care per week displayed more avoidance of mother on reunion and were more likely to be classified as insecurely attached to her than infants with less than 20 hours of care per week. Sons whose mothers were employed on a full-time basis (greater than 35 hours per week) were more likely to be classified as insecure in their attachments to their fathers than all other boys, and, as a result, sons with 20 or more hours of nonmaternal care per week were more likely to be insecurely attached to both parents and less likely to be securely attached to both parents than other boys. A secondary analysis of infants with extensive care experience who did and did not develop insecure attachment relationships with their mothers highlights several conditions under which the risk of insecurity is elevated or reduced. Both sets of findings are considered in terms of other research and the context in which infant day-care is currently experienced in the United States.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate the development of visual expectancies in 3.5-month-old infants and find that infants can detect regularity in a spatio-temporal series, will develop expectancies for events in the series, and will act on the basis of those expectancies even when those actions have no effect on the stimulus events.
Abstract: We report an investigation of the development of visual expectancies in 3.5-month-old infants. One of the infant's eyes was videorecorded as the infant watched a series of slides that were presented noncontingent on behavior. Babies were presented an alternating and an irregular series of 30 slides with a 700-msec onset duration separated by an interstimulus interval (ISI). The ISI for the alternating series was 1,100 msec, whereas the slides for the irregular series were separated by 900, 1,100, or 1,300 msec, randomly ordered. One-half of the babies saw the irregular series first, and one-half saw the regular series first. Babies in both groups provided evidence that they developed expectations for the visual events in the alternating series. Their reaction times (RTs) declined significantly from 3-5 "baseline" presentations, and their RTs were reliably faster during the alternating than the irregular series. Additionally, babies in the alternating-late group had significantly more stimulus anticipations during the alternating than during the irregular series. These findings indicate that 3.5-month-olds can detect regularity in a spatiotemporal series, will develop expectancies for events in the series, and will act on the basis of those expectancies even when those actions have no effect on the stimulus events. We believe that infants are motivated to develop expectations for noncontrollable spatiotemporal events, because these expectations permit them to bring their visual behavior under partial internal control.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the relation between early social and familial experience, social problem solving skill, and social competence in the classroom in a sample of 46 preschool (4 and 5-year old) children from economically distressed backgrounds.
Abstract: PETTIT, GREGORY S.; DODGE, KENNETH A.; and BROWN, MELISSA M. Early Family Experience, Social Problem Solving Patterns, and Children's Social Competence. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1988, 59, 107-120. The relations among early social and familial experience, social problem solving skill, and social competence in the classroom were examined in a sample of 46 preschool (4and 5-yearold) children from economically distressed backgrounds. The hypothesis was tested that (a) early family experiences would be related to classroom social competence, and (b) that this relation would be mediated by the child's social problem solving patterns. Early experience was assessed during a semistructured home-visit interview with each child's mother. Measures derived from this interview included the child's level of exposure to deviant aggressive models, maternal values and expectations for the child, harshness of discipline toward the child, use of preventive teaching with the child, and the child's degree of early experience with peers. The child's classroom competence was assessed by sociometric nominations and teacher ratings of aggressiveness and social skill. Responses to hypothetical social problems were used to generate measures of the child's social problem solving patterns. Several dimensions of family experience were found to be predictive of both classroom social competence and social problem solving. Stepwise regression analyses revealed that some kinds of early experience (e.g., early experience with peers) appeared to have a direct impact on peer outcomes, whereas for other experiences (e.g., exposure to deviant maternal values and expectations), the relation to social competence with peers was mediated by the child's social problem solving skills and patterns. The need to consider family relationship factors when designing preventive intervention programs for socially incompetent children was stressed.
TL;DR: Results indicated that the looking behavior of younger children may function differently than that of older children, and that social referencing involves a number of component skills that develop during the end of the first year and throughout the second year of life.
Abstract: The development of social referencing in 40 infants aged 6-9, 10-13, and 14-22 months was investigated in this study. Social referencing was defined broadly to include children's looks toward parents, their instrumental toy behaviors, affective expressions, and other behaviors toward parents. Children's looks at parents were more selective with increasing age, with older infants preferring to look directly at their parents' faces and younger infants showing no preference for looks to faces over looks elsewhere at the parent. Younger infants looked most often when their parents expressed positive affect, whereas older infants looked most often when parents displayed fearful reactions toward a stimulus. Evidence of a behavioral regulatory effect on instrumental toy behaviors was found only among infants 10-13 months of age. However, only infants older than 14 months of age inhibited touching the toy until after referencing the parent. On some measures these older infants showed a preference for toys associated with fearful messages. Affective expressions were in line with positive and negative behavior toward toys. No support for mood modification or simple imitation as explanations for the effects was found. Results indicated that the looking behavior of younger children may function differently than that of older children, and that social referencing involves a number of component skills that develop during the end of the first year and throughout the second year of life.
TL;DR: Behavioral and physiological assessments of 41 7 1/2-year-old children who had been selected to be inhibited or uninhibited at 21 months and observed again at 4 and 5 1-2 years revealed that each of the 2 original behavioral profiles predicted theoretically reasonable derivatives.
Abstract: Behavioral and physiological assessments of 41 7 1/2-year-old children who had been selected to be inhibited or uninhibited at 21 months and observed again at 4 and 5 1/2 years revealed that each of the 2 original behavioral profiles predicted theoretically reasonable derivatives. A majority of the formerly shy, timid children became quiet and socially avoidant in unfamiliar social situations, while a majority of the formerly sociable children became talkative and interactive with peers and adults. Absolute heart-rate and cortisol level at 7 1/2 years were not as discriminating of the 2 behavioral groups as they had been 2 years earlier.
TL;DR: Conflicts between mutual friends, as compared to those occurring between neutral associates, did not occur less frequently, differ in length, or differ in the situations that instigated them, but were less intense and resolved more frequently with disengagement and more frequently resulted in equal or partially equal outcomes.
Abstract: The purpose of this investigation was to compare conflicts occurring between young children and their friends to those occurring between nonfriends. 53 children with a median age of 4 years, 3 months were observed and interviewed to determine who were mutual friends, unilateral associates, or neutral associates. 146 conflicts were also observed. Conflicts between mutual friends, as compared to those occurring between neutral associates: (a) did not occur less frequently, differ in length, or differ in the situations that instigated them, but (b) were less intense, were resolved more frequently with disengagement, and more frequently resulted in equal or partially equal outcomes. Continued socialization was also more likely following conflicts between friends. Conflicts between unilateral associates resembled those between nonfriends, although postconflict interaction resembled that between mutual friends. Conflict resolution strategies favored by friends maximize the likelihood that their interaction and their relationships will continue.
TL;DR: Bus et al. as mentioned in this paper described the relations among mother-child interactions as they relate to written language, attachment security, and the child's performance on a number of emergentliteracy measures.
Abstract: Bus, ADRIANA G., and VAN IJZENDOORN, MARINUs H. Mother-Child Interactions, Attachment, and Emergent Literacy: A Cross-sectional Study. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1988, 59, 1262-1272. The purpose of this study was to describe the relations among mother-child interactions as they relate to written language, attachment security, and the child's performance on a number of emergentliteracy measures. 16 11/2-year-olds, 15 3/2-year-olds, and 14 51/2-year-olds participated in the study. Each mother-child dyad read through 2 books (Dribble and Letterbook) and watched "Sesame Street" fragments about letters and words. The Strange Situation procedure was used to observe attachment security with the youngest group. In the older groups, the children were left on their own by the mother for about 1 hour, during which they were tested and it was observed how the children reacted upon the return of the mother. In addition, each 3/2and 51/2-year-old completed 5 emergent-literacy tests. The results suggest that mothers of small children give reading instruction. Furthermore, it is shown that in securely attached dyads, there is less need to discipline; the children are less distracted than in anxiously attached dyads. In addition, securely attached dyads tend to pay more attention to reading instruction and to engage in more proto-reading. Last, children who get more reading instruction and less narration score higher on emergent-literacy measures.
TL;DR: 48 12-month-old infants and their mothers were videotaped in the Ainsworth Strange Situation, a situation in which maternal compliance with the request to complete the questionnaire was expected to compete with attentional demands made on her by the infant.
Abstract: 48 12-month-old infants and their mothers were videotaped in the Ainsworth Strange Situation. Each infant-mother dyad was also filmed for 3 min while the mother completed a questionnaire and the infant was left to explore the room devoid of toys, a situation in which maternal compliance with the request to complete the questionnaire was expected to compete with attentional demands made on her by the infant. Infant-mother attachment was classified as secure, anxious-avoidant, or anxious-resistant on the basis of behavior in the Strange Situation. Assessment of maternal sensitivity during the questionnaire situation included behaviors classified as reflecting appropriate, insufficient, and intrusive responses to infant cues. 3 summary measures of maternal sensitivity, each of which distinguished between mothers of securely and anxiously attached infants in 1-way analysis of variance tests, were entered into a discriminant function analysis. Using the discriminant function coefficients for combining the maternal sensitivity scores, 94% of the infants were correctly classified as securely or anxiously attached on the basis of their mothers' behavior in the questionnaire situation.