Estuarine and coastal transformation is as old as civilization yet has dramatically accelerated over the past 150 to 300 years. Reconstructed time lines, causes, and consequences of change in 12 once diverse and productive estuaries and coastal seas worldwide show similar patterns: Human impacts have depleted >90% of formerly important species, destroyed >65% of seagrass and wetland habitat, degraded water quality, and accelerated species invasions. Twentieth-century conservation efforts achieved partial recovery of upper trophic levels but have so far failed to restore former ecosystem structure and function. Our results provide detailed historical baselines and quantitative targets for ecosystem-based management and marine conservation.

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Depletion, Degradation, and Recovery Potential of Estuaries and Coastal Seas

It is clear that the above can lead to confusion when scientists of different countries are trying to communicate with each other. Another example is the burrowing rodent called a gopher found throughout the western United States. In the southeastern United States the term gopher refers to a burrowing turtle very similar to the desert tortoise found in the American southwest. One final example; two North American mammals known as the elk and the caribou are known in Europe as the reindeer and the elk. We never sing “Rudolph the Red-nosed elk”! Confused? This was the reason for creating an internationally recognized system of naming organisms. To avoid confusion, living organisms are assigned a scientific name based on Latin or Latinized words. The English sparrow is Passer domesticus or Passer domesticus (italics or underlining these two names is the official written representation of a scientific name). Using a uniform naming system allows scientists from all over the world to recognize exactly which life form a scientist is referring to. The naming process is called the binomial system of nomenclature. Passer is comparable to a surname and is called the genus, while domesticus is the specific or species name (like your given name) of the English sparrow. Now scientists can give all sparrow-like birds the genus Passer but the species name will vary. All similar genera (plural for genus) can be grouped into another, “higher” category (see below). Study the following for a more through understanding of taxonomy. Taxonomy Analogy Kingdom: Animalia Country

Diversity of life

Coastal tourism started in the 19th Century and has increased in non-linear fashion ever since, stimulated by a combination of developments in transport technology and rising prosperity. Initially, mainly national in character, the introduction of roll-on, roll-off ferries and inexpensive air transport caused an exponential 28-fold rise in international tourism between 1950 and the start of the 21st Century. This review considers the impact of tourism at two levels: (1) that created by the sheer numbers of tourists and their demands (‘mass tourism and transport’) and (2) that resulting from individual, often novel, forms of transport (‘personal leisure transport’). Under (1), the consequences of the construction of coastal resorts and roads, marinas and jetties for habitat fragmentation and reduced biodiversity are described. Next, the effects of large cruise ships (now some 250 in number) are considered, particularly in relation to unregulated pollution and the delivery of substantial numbers of tourists to remote destinations. Thirdly, the literature related to disturbance caused by intertidal trampling by tourists on rocky/sandy shores is reviewed, followed by a section devoted to the unappreciated effects of beach ‘cleaning’ (i.e. removal of natural strandlines as well as litter) that is practiced throughout the world’s sandy beach resorts. Finally, the potentially positive area of coastal ecotourism is considered, but evidence is assembled to highlight the problems associated with too high a demand. Under (2), the impact of a range of personal leisure transport modes is considered. These range from relatively innocuous pursuits (e.g. swimming, surfing, sailboarding and dinghy sailing), to an extremely popular sport (SCUBA diving) that is marketed for its environmentally-friendly nature, yet causes measurable deterioration in the world’s coral ecosystems despite good management practices. The impact of motorboats is considered, particularly in the context of transmission of non-native species, while the highly polluting and disturbing technology of ‘personal watercraft’ is evaluated. Finally, the uncontrolled emergence of new ‘extreme sports’ (e.g. ‘coasteering’, kitesurfing) is identified as a future problem. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: A review

Standardized diet compositions were derived for 97 species of marine mammals from published accounts of stomach contents as well as from morphological, behavioural and other information. Diet was apportioned among eight categories of prey types (benthic invertebrates, large zooplankton, small squids, large squids, small pelagic fishes, mesopelagic fishes, miscellaneous fishes and higher invertebrates). Trophic levels were estimated for each species of marine mammals and compared with published estimates derived using stable isotope ratios. Trophic levels ranged from 3.2-3.4 in baleen whales and sea otters, to 3.8-4.4 in most pinnipeds and odontocete whales, to 4.5-4.6 in killer whales. Such information can be used for ecosystem modelling and related studies.

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Diet composition and trophic levels of marine mammals

Heat stress can have large effects on most aspects of reproductive function in mammals. These include disruptions in spermatogenesis and oocyte development, oocyte maturation, early embryonic development, foetal and placental growth and lactation. These deleterious effects of heat stress are the result of either the hyperthermia associated with heat stress or the physiological adjustments made by the heat-stressed animal to regulate body temperature. Many effects of elevated temperature on gametes and the early embryo involve increased production of reactive oxygen species. Genetic adaptation to heat stress is possible both with respect to regulation of body temperature and cellular resistance to elevated temperature.

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Effects of heat stress on mammalian reproduction.

Although collisions with motorized ships are a recognized source of whale mortality, little has been done to compile information on the frequency of their occurrence or contributing factors. We searched historical records and computerized stranding databases for evidence of ship strikes involving great whales (i.e., baleen whales and the sperm whale). Historical records suggest that ship strikes fatal to whales first occurred late in the 1800s as ships began to reach speeds of 13-15 kn, remained infrequent until about 1950, and then increased during the 1950s-1970s as the number and speed of ships in­ creased. Of 11 species known to be hit by ships, fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) are struck most frequently; right whales (Eubalae1la glacialis and E. allStralis), humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), sperm whales (Physeter catodon), and gray whales (Eschrichtius robustllS) are hit commonly. In some areas, one-third of all fin whale and right whale strandings appear to involve ship strikes. To assess contributing factors, we compiled descriptions of 58 collisions. They indicate that all sizes and types of vessels can hit whales;

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Collisions between ships and whales

Mead, J. G., and R. E. Fordyce. The Therian Skull: A Lexicon with Emphasis on the Odontocetes. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 627, 248 pages, frontispiece, 2 diagrams, 32 figures, 9 tables, 2009. — Cetaceans form one of the most unique groups in the evolutionary history of mammals. They have returned to the sea and modified their tail as an efficient means of locomotion. As they adapted to the limited visibility in the aquatic environment, the odontocetes developed a system of echolocation that resulted in extensive modifications to the skull bones. This made descriptive comparisons very difficult and early anatomists unwittingly composed new terms for anatomical structures that had already been named in other taxa. This made anatomical comparisons, based on the literature, extremely tenuous. This lexicon is an attempt to remedy that situation in that it provides headwords and definitions for all the terms that have been used in describing the mammal skull and notes the synonymous terms. The lexicon includes the human nomenclature (Nomina Anatomica), the veterinary nomenclature (Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria) and the nomenclature that is used in descriptive comparative anatomy. The lexicon covers not only extant but extinct mammalian groups and is extensively indexed. Cover: Detail from Frontispiece, illustration of a dolphin skull (cf. Delphinus sp.) presented by

The Therian Skull: A Lexicon with Emphasis on the Odontocetes

9 – Natural History of Bottlenose Dolphins Along the Central Atlantic Coast of the United States

Mead James G. Anatomy of the External Nasal Passages and Facial Complex in the Delphinidae (Mammalia: Cetacea). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 207, 72 pages, 26 figures, 3 tables, 1975.—This study is concerned with the comparative anatomy of the external nasal passages and associated structures in delphinid odontocetes. It has been possible to assemble detailed anatomical information for nearly all of the delphinid genera. Comparative data for the other small toothed whales is considered in such detail as is available. The function of the structures associated with the external nasal passages has been poorly understood, partly due to a lack of understanding of their anatomy. I have drawn functional conclusions from the basis of this comparative study, but these are largely unsupported by experimental data. The nasal musculature is concerned both with opening and closing the nasal passage during respiration, and with movement of air between the nasal diverticula during sound production. The nasal diverticula are part of the acoustic system of these animals, and function both as air reservoirs and as reflective elements to focus the emitted sound field. The potential area of sound production is limited to the deep structures around the external body nares. The melon probably serves as an acoustic channel. Cranial asymmetry in odontocetes is related to specialized sound-producing mechanisms involving predominantly the right nasal passage. The nasal structures have formed a very important functional complex in the evolution of odontocetes, and are important from a phyletic viewpoint. This study has shown that the genera Tursiops, Stenella, and Delphinus form a relatively generalized group within the Delphinidae. The bulbous-headed genera Grampus, Globicephala, and Pseudorca clearly represent independent specializations. The other families of odontocetes differ considerably from the delphinids in their facial anatomy. The anatomical diversity in this region suggests an acoustic diversity which remains to be demonstrated experimentally. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SI PRESS NUMBER 5387. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea cavernosa (Linnaeus). Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Mead, James G. Anatomy of the external nasal passages and facial complex in the Delphinidae (Mammalia: Cetacea) (Smithsonian contributions to zoology, no. 207) Supt. of Docs, no.: SI 1.27:207 1. Delphinidae. 2. Nose. 3. Face. 4. Skull. I. Title. II. Series: Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian contributions to zoology, no. 207. QL1.S54 no. 207 [QL737.C432] 591'.08s [599'.53] 75-619034

Anatomy of the External Nasal Passages and Facial Complex in the Delphinidae (Mammalia: Cetacea)

Mass strandings of beaked whales (family Ziphiidae) have been reported in the scientific literature since 1874. Several recent mass strandings of beaked whales have been reported to coincide with naval active sonar exercises. To obtain the broadest assessment of surface ship naval active sonar operations coinciding with beaked whale mass strandings, a list of global naval training and antisubmarine warfare exercises was compiled from openly available sources and compared by location and time with historic stranding records. This list includes activities of navies of other nations but emphasizes recent U.S. activities because of what is available in publicly accessible sources. Of 136 beaked whale mass stranding events reported from 1874 to 2004, 126 occurred between 1950 and 2004, after the introduction and implementation of modern, high-power mid-frequency active sonar (MFAS). Of these 126 reports, only two reported details on the use, timing, and location of sonar in relation to mass strandings. Ten other mass strandings coincided in space and time with naval exercises that may have included MFAS. An additional 27 mass stranding events occurred near a naval base or ship but with no direct evidence of sonar use. The remaining 87 mass strandings have no evidence for a link with any naval activity. Six of these 87 cases have evidence for a cause unrelated to active sonar. The large number of global naval activities annually with potential MFAS usage in comparison to the relative rarity of mass stranding events suggests that most MFAS operations take place with no reported stranding events and that for an MFAS operation to cause a mass stranding of beaked whales, a confluence of several risk factors is probably required. Identification of these risk factors will help in the development of measures to reduce the risk of sonar-related strandings.

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James G. Mead

Papers

Collisions between ships and whales

The Therian Skull: A Lexicon with Emphasis on the Odontocetes

9 – Natural History of Bottlenose Dolphins Along the Central Atlantic Coast of the United States

Anatomy of the External Nasal Passages and Facial Complex in the Delphinidae (Mammalia: Cetacea)

Beaked Whale Strandings and Naval Exercises