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The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: a latent variable analysis.

Working memory (WM) span tasks—and in particular, counting span, operation span, and reading span tasks—are widely used measures of WM capacity. Despite their popularity, however, there has never been a comprehensive analysis of the merits of WM span tasks as measurement tools. Here, we review the genesis of these tasks and discuss how and why they came to be so influential. In so doing, we address the reliability and validity of the tasks, and we consider more technical aspects of the tasks, such as optimal administration and scoring procedures. Finally, we discuss statistical and methodological techniques that have commonly been used in conjunction with WM span tasks, such as latent variable analysis and extreme-groups designs.

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Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide

During the last 2 decades, major advances have been made in understanding the development of executive functions (EFs) in early childhood. This article reviews the EF literature during the preschool period using an integrative framework. The framework adopted considers EF to be a unitary construct with partially dissociable components (A. Miyake et al., 2000). The authors focus on 3 EF components: working memory, response inhibition, and shifting. For the present purposes, the central executive is conceived of as a central attention system that is involved in all EF component operations. Research to date suggests that elementary forms of the core EF components are present early during the preschool period. Changes in EF during the latter half of the preschool period appear to be due to the development of attention and integration of component EFs. Finally, the review outlines a number of areas that warrant further investigation if researchers are to move forward in understanding early EF development.

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Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework.

What makes organizations so similar? We contend that the engine of rationalization and bureaucratization has moved from the competitive marketplace to the state and the professions. Once a set of organizations emerges as a field, a paradox arises: rational actors make their organizations increasingly similar as they try to change them. We describe three isomorphic processes-coercive, mimetic, and normative—leading to this outcome. We then specify hypotheses about the impact of resource centralization and dependency, goal ambiguity and technical uncertainty, and professionalization and structuration on isomorphic change. Finally, we suggest implications for theories of organizations and social change.

The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields (Chinese Translation)

This study investigated dimensions of executive functioning in 8- to 13-year-old children. Three tasks from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB), two tasks from the NEPSY battery and some additional executive function (EF) tests were administered to 108 children. In line with earlier work, modest correlations among EF measures were obtained (r < .4). Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses yielded three interrelated factors, which resembled those obtained by Miyake et al. (2000) and which were—with some reservations—labelled Working Memory (WM), Inhibition and Shifting. Age correlated with performance on most individual EF measures as well as Shifting and WM. The present findings are in agreement with contemporary views as to the simultaneous unity and diversity of EFs.

Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children

The relationship between working memory (WM) capacity and three executive function tests, which were adopted from clinical neuropsychology, was studied. The subjects were normal 15–16-year-old students. A large set of WM measures included digit and word span, a modified memory-updating task, and five different complex WM span tasks. The complex span measures and the memory-updating task showed high intercorrelations. Of the three executive function tests, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) correlated significantly with WM tasks, the storage function of WM probably being a limiting factor in card sorting. The global performance measures of the WCST were more dependent on WM capacity than the number of perseverations. The two other executive function tests-the Tower of Hanoi and Goal Search Task-did not correlate with WM tasks. None of the executive function tests exhibited any significant intercorrelations. The results are in agreement with earlier studies, which have found separate executive functions...

Are Executive Function Tests Dependent on Working Memory Capacity

Passive and active visuospatial working memory (VSWM) were investigated in relation to maths performance The mental rotation task was employed as a measure of active VSWM whereas passive VSWM was investigated using a modified Corsi Blocks task and a matrix pattern task The Raven Progressive Matrices Test measured fluid intelligence A total of 128 students, aged 15–16, served as participants Fluid intelligence and passive VSWM accounted for variance in overall maths performance Active VSWM exhibited significant correlations with maths measures, but in a series of regression analyses most of its effect was observed to be mediated by fluid intelligence Different subscores of mathematical skills (geometry, word problems, and mental arithmetic) were accounted for by fluid intelligence and different measures of VSWM The educational implications of the results are discussed

Some factors underlying mathematical performance: The role of visuospatial working memory and non-verbal intelligence

Visuospatial working memory and early numeracy

Two experiments explored the relationship between 15‐16‐year‐old ninth‐formers’ working memory (WM) capacity and school achievement. In the first experiment, WM capacity was measured administering complex WM span tests on 107 subjects. These measures correlated highly significantly with performance in four school subjects: mathematics, foreign language, Finnish (native language) and geography. In the second experiment, additional WM tasks were used to measure two WM components: the phonological loop and the central executive component as suggested by Baddeley (1986). The tasks that were assumed to measure the central executive were strongly linked to performance in school subjects. Maximally, they shared 31 % of the variance with school achievement. Partial correlations showed that digit span correlated, independently of the central executive measures, with performance in foreign language. This result suggested that the phonological loop is specifically related to foreign language learning. The r...

Juhani Lehto

Papers

Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children

Are Executive Function Tests Dependent on Working Memory Capacity

Some factors underlying mathematical performance: The role of visuospatial working memory and non-verbal intelligence

Visuospatial working memory and early numeracy

Working Memory and School Achievement in the Ninth Form.